Saturday, June 25, 2011
Chomsky: The Facts, The Images
Noam Chomsky | Global Hegemony: The Facts, The Images | April 20, 2011
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NOVA: Voyage 2d Mystery Moon
NARRATOR: Saturn: Mysterious, hauntingly beautiful; a swirling ball of gas, embraced by heavenly rings that span over 150,000 miles, circled by more than 40 moons in dizzying orbits; so distant, going there could only be a dream, until now.
NASA and the European Space Agency are teaming up for the most ambitious unmanned space project ever launched. Across more than 2 billion miles, it will battle the bitter cold of space, thread the rings of Saturn, survive the heat of entry and brutal impact of landing, and beam pictures and data back from Titan, its largest moon.
NOVA follows this fantastic voyage to Saturn, on a quest to solve some of the greatest mysteries of this alien world. Up next, Voyage to the Mystery Moon.
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NARRATOR: Saturn, Lord of the Rings, few sights in the solar system are more strikingly beautiful than this celestial sphere, embraced by its majestic rings.
This giant ball of gas, 750 times larger than Earth, visible as a golden star, has captivated our imaginations since we first looked up at the night sky. But it wasn't until 1980, when we were able to get a close-up look at the sixth planet from the Sun.
The Voyager deep space probes flew past Saturn and sent back tantalizing glimpses of this distant world, and Saturn's mysterious rings were seen closer than ever before.
CAROLYN PORCO (Space Science Institute): Voyager got there and found this bewildering array of, of structure in the rings. And people set about trying to explain it right away.
NARRATOR: What are the rings? How were they formed? When were they formed? And how long will they last?
But the rings weren't the only feature Voyager explored. For the first time, detailed images of Saturn's moons were sent back—more than 40 in all, from dozens of minor moons, to one nearly half the size of Earth. It was named after Saturn's mythological brothers, the giant Titans.
Titan was unlike any moon that had ever been seen. It had clouds and an atmosphere 10 times denser than Earth's. Frustratingly, a thick layer of orange haze shrouded its surface.
CHARLES ELACHI (Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory): We saw this fuzzy ball, and the immediate reaction is, "What's below those clouds?" You know, "What are these clouds made of? What is hidden behind that layer?"
NARRATOR: Whatever was hidden, it had to be a solid body, or else its atmosphere would have long ago escaped into space.
As Voyager confirmed, the atmosphere was nitrogen-rich and included organic molecules, perhaps resembling the atmosphere of the early Earth. Could Titan play a unique role in helping us understand the origin of life on Earth?
JONATHAN LUNINE (University of Arizona): If you look at our solar system, there are only four bodies that have atmospheres and are actually solid bodies themselves: the Earth, Venus, Mars and Titan.
Venus is just so hot that one can melt lead on the surface; there's...there are no organic molecules. Mars today is very cold, very dry, very thin, not a good place for organic molecules. And so we're left with Titan.
NARRATOR: Voyager moved on—out towards Uranus, Neptune and beyond—but Voyager's spectacular images of Saturn and its rings, and this enticing glimpse of Titan, left scientists wanting more.
LARRY ESPOSITO (University of Colorado at Boulder): The combination of the spectacular structure in the rings, the hazy atmosphere of Titan, just left every scientist with a great curiosity to explain those things that we had seen with the Voyager fly-bys. Immediately, there was a feeling that we had to return to Saturn and stay there for a longer time.
NARRATOR: So in 1990, NASA and ESA, the European Space Agency, team up for an unprecedented collaboration, a new mission to Saturn, with a landing on Titan.
To get there, they need to build a spacecraft to travel more than two billion miles, battle the bitter cold of space, thread through the rings of Saturn, withstand the intense heat of entry and the brutal impact of landing, and ultimately beam back pictures and data.
Their odds of success seem about as likely as throwing a basketball from NASA's launch site at Cape Canaveral, Florida, through a hoop in ESA's command center in Germany, without touching the rim.
The spacecraft they design to accomplish this mission, they name Cassini, after the 17th century astronomer who discovered gaps in Saturn's rings.
Built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Cassini deep space probe carries an amazingly complex array of instruments. The eyes of Cassini are two sophisticated cameras.
CAROLYN PORCO: One is a very long focal length, very high resolution, but you get little postage stamp-like coverage. And so you want to also carry a camera with a larger field of view, shorter focal length, that covers a greater amount of territory, so you can put your little postage stamp coverage in context, in geological context.
NARRATOR: Cassini is also loaded with a powerful radar, designed to punch through Titan's hazy atmosphere. And that's not all. Riding aboard Cassini on this seven-year mission is a small probe, built by the European Space Agency. Named Huygens, after the astronomer who discovered Titan in 1655, this probe is designed to actually land on the moon's surface. It will see, sniff, touch and listen to the mysterious moon, radioing back images and data to orbiting Cassini, under conditions that no one can precisely predict.
RALPH LORENZ (University of Arizona): The atmosphere could have been thicker than we thought or thinner than we thought, warmer or cooler. We had no idea what the surface was, so there was no guarantee that the probe would keep working after it hit the ground.
NARRATOR: The engineers need to make sure that Huygens is tough enough for the job. Every aspect of the super sensitive probe's design and construction must be put to the test.
When the probe slams into Titan's atmosphere, it will produce temperatures of over 20,000 degrees Fahrenheit, more than twice the surface temperature of the Sun.
And it's this heat shield that is designed to withstand it.
If the probe survives the heat of entry, successful landing will depend on the precise opening of three small parachutes. Packed for seven years, these parachutes have to deploy, unfold and inflate in sequence or the mission will be lost.
During the two-and-a-half-hour descent, specially designed onboard cameras will act as the eyes of the probe. It is these cameras that will send home the first glimpse of Titan's surface.
For Huygens' imaging specialist, Martin Tomasko, it is imperative that his cameras don't miss a thing.
MARTIN TOMASKO (University of Arizona): What we're trying to get is kind of the skydiver's eye view, as if you were outside the probe and falling down through the atmosphere. We don't want to land near some interesting object like the Grand Canyon and not know it's there. To see through the haze has been notoriously difficult. We hope that our big advantage is that we'll fall through the haze, and eventually we'll be under most of the haze and be able to see the surface that much more clearly.
NARRATOR: After descending through the orange shroud, the climax of the mission is touchdown on Titan's surface.
JOHN ZARNECKI (The Open University): We set up a facility in the lab that would enable us to simulate what would happen when Huygens hit the surface of Titan.
This device called a penetrometer, will measure the force of first contact. You get a very different signal if you strike, for example, a sheet of solid ice, if you hit semi-compacted snow, if you, if you struck a liquid—if you landed in a lake, for example.
You know, we used to joke and say we would either thud, squelch or splash down, and that really is quite a good description, because it could have been any of those scenarios or a mix of them.
NARRATOR: By 1997, the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft is built and assembled, but there is one major challenge: together, their weight is massive.
ROBERT MITCHELL (Cassini Program Manager, Jet Propulsion Laboratory): The Cassini spacecraft is the largest interplanetary satellite that NASA has ever built and launched.
NARRATOR: The big problem is how to get this six-ton leviathan into space. The most powerful rocket on Earth, the mighty Titan IV, is selected for launch, delivering over 3.4 million pounds of thrust. But even this will not be enough. For not only does Cassini have to break free from Earth's gravity, it has to travel almost a billion miles to Saturn, on a small amount of fuel.
The only way for Cassini to make the journey is to pick up additional energy from a flight path that takes advantage of an unusual convergence of the planets.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The energy that we needed to get out in the solar system, out to the planet Saturn had to be supplemented by...partially provided by gravitational encounters with the planets. The important thing is to gather energy from the gravity of the planet you're flying by.
NARRATOR: First, Cassini will be routed via the Earth's nearest neighbor, Venus. This planet's gravitational pull will accelerate Cassini, increasing its speed by over 8,000 miles per hour, but this still will not be enough. Cassini will need to return for a second boost from Venus. Then it's the Earth's turn, accelerating Cassini with a fling out towards its next rendezvous, Jupiter. Eventually, the spacecraft will clock up a speed of 50,000 miles per hour before reaching its final destination -- Saturn. That's the theory, but will it work?
October 15, 1997: With the planets in perfect alignment, from NASA's launch site at Cape Canaveral, in Florida, Cassini blasts into the night sky.
RALPH LORENZ: It sort of lit this cloud up, like a Chinese lantern, from within. It was quite spectacular and, and you just think, "Wow, you know. It's out of our hands now."
NARRATOR: The seven-year journey, covering 2.2 billion miles in all, begins. With Cassini-Huygens now en route to Saturn, scientists will soon have the opportunity to explore the mystery of Saturn's majestic rings and its enigmatic moon, Titan.
Two years into its journey, the spacecraft loops around Venus a second time and swings back past the Earth. Here, the JPL scientists check out Cassini's high-power radar. It scans a huge swath of South America, and everything is in working order. The radar seems to be operating flawlessly.
Next, they perform a simulation to test the radio link between Huygens and Cassini.
JOHN ZARNECKI: The Huygens probe itself doesn't have enough power, and it doesn't have a large enough dish to transmit its data, the scientific data that it collects on Titan, directly back to the Earth. So what will happen is that it uses the Cassini spacecraft as a data relay.
NARRATOR: The test is to make sure that Cassini is receiving all the data from Huygens, but when the results come back, they are alarming.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON (Huygens Mission Manager, European Space Agency): We were expecting to receive all the simulated data. Unfortunately, we did not receive very many of those data. We lost, well, it's...we lost maybe 90 percent of the data, sometimes even all of the data.
NARRATOR: If Cassini fails to receive the data from Huygens, then when the probe descends to Titan, there will be no results, no pictures, nothing. A crucial part of the mission will be lost.
Huygens' European team calls a meeting to discuss the situation. As one of NASA's imaging specialists for Huygens, Martin Tomasko cannot believe what he is hearing.
MARTIN TOMASKO: They said, "We've performed the test, and we didn't get any signal, but the test accomplished all of its objectives." And some of us were sitting around the table saying, "What? What exactly are you trying to sell us?" You know, you've accomplished the objectives of conducting the test, but you've actually succeeded in proving the thing is not going to work.
NARRATOR: Six months of painstaking detective work finally pinpoints the problem. When Huygens is descending to Titan, Cassini will be speeding away from it at 12,000 miles per hour; they will no longer be able to communicate on the same frequency.
JOHN ZARNECKI: It was enough to, essentially, put the link between the two out of alignment. It was as if Huygens was transmitting on, on Radio One, on one frequency, and Cassini was receiving on Radio Two, a slightly different frequency, so this was potentially disastrous.
NARRATOR: Retuning the receiver is impossible. Cassini is out in space, over 300 million miles away.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON: There was no way we could repair, so we had to find a new mission scenario which would, which would allow us to live with this problem but still to recover the, the whole mission.
NARRATOR: After months of research, they devise an ingenious plan. Although they can't retune Cassini's receiver, they can shift the signal it is picking up by using a basic principal known as the Doppler Effect.
If they can slow Cassini down, it will receive the radio waves that Huygens is sending at a lower frequency, solving the problem.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON: All in all, it took us six months to find a solution, but it took us two years to design all the detail of the solution and to test it. We are not going to lose any science, so it's a very successful recovery.
NARRATOR: Both teams are now hopeful that Huygens has a good chance of sending back its precious data, when it finally reaches Titan.
By the year 2,000, Cassini is now a billion and a half miles out in space and arrives at Jupiter, the giant of the solar system. With a planet twice as massive as all the others combined, Cassini's cameras face their biggest test yet.
Jupiter's majesty is revealed as never before. Its swirling gaseous atmosphere is seen with breathtaking clarity. But Cassini has to move on across another 500 million miles of space before it reaches its final destination.
For imaging team leader Carolyn Porco, the Jupiter pictures are a triumph. But her true goal is the planet she has devoted her career and heart to studying, Saturn.
CAROLYN PORCO: To know that we can know so much about our solar system and about our cosmos, for me, makes life meaningful. It's very much like being in love. It's very much that kind of a relationship, where you want to know more and, and you want to be one with the person you're in love with or the topic that you're studying. It's, it's, it's kind of this...it's a connection. It's really a connection. And for me, it's, it's like being allowed a glimpse of the miraculous.
NARRATOR: Spring of 2004: Cassini is closing in on Saturn, but just before contact, mission planners calculate a precise course to send the spacecraft past Phoebe, Saturn's outermost moon.
Until now, all that scientists had seen of Phoebe is this picture, taken by Voyager, 23 years ago. But this time Phoebe is in the cross hairs of Cassini's powerful cameras. Picture after picture returns with astounding detail.
CAROLYN PORCO: We buzzed Phoebe, okay? We came within 2,000 kilometers of its surface. You could reach out and touch it, is what it looked like. So it's very exciting. We saw features that were, were 30 meters across.
NARRATOR: The images of Phoebe reveal an ancient surface, pitted with craters created over billions of years. But Phoebe is just an appetizer, a taste of what is to come.
June 2004: At the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, NASA's team has piloted the Cassini spacecraft across 2.2 billion miles of space and is still right on target, fast approaching one of our solar system's greatest enigmas, the rings of Saturn.
Very little is known about them.
CAROLYN PORCO: The questions that we scientists have about Saturn's rings are the questions that an ordinary person might be moved to ask when first seeing them, you know? "What caused them? How did they get there? How long have they been around? How long are they going to last?"
NARRATOR: Answering these questions is one of Cassini's prime objectives. A good opportunity for close-range observation will come as mission control maneuvers Cassini into orbit around Saturn, because that means passing right through the rings.
Voyager revealed that the rings are made up of rock-hard ice, ranging in size from a grain of sugar to a large house. The rings, just 300 feet thick and a vast 38,000 miles wide, are chaotic and dangerous.
LARRY ESPOSITO: All the ring particles, billions and billions of them, are in orbit around the planet Saturn, and they're moving at quite a clip, something like 10 kilometers per second—faster than a high-speed bullet. If you were in Saturn's rings, you would be in a mass of particles that were bumping into each other and rolling over each other. If you were a ring particle, you would get bombarded from one side and then from the other, as one particle bounced off of another, all around you.
NARRATOR: Entering directly into the rings would be suicide. But NASA's JPL team has a plan. They calculate a course for the spacecraft through a 15,000 mile gap in Saturn's rings. Even so, with one small miscalculation, Cassini could be torn apart.
LARRY ESPOSITO: Even a very small particle could be the end of Cassini. If it hits a particle as small as a grain of rice, that would be enough, because of the high speed at which it's moving, to end the mission.
NARRATOR: But particles from the rings are not the only danger that Cassini faces. It also has to slow down. That means firing up its main engine. Any malfunction, and Cassini will simply fly past Saturn, lost forever in the void of space.
CHARLES ELACHI: That engine had not been used very frequently over a period of seven years; that makes you nervous. You know, it's like you have a car, a brand new car that you put in the garage, and every once in a while, you turn it on. And then you have an emergency, and you get in the car, and you turn it on—it better work.
NARRATOR: June 30, 2004: The press gathers at JPL for news of the most critical part of the seven-year trek across the solar system.
The ring insertion maneuver begins at 7:36 p.m. First, Cassini rotates to use its giant antenna as a shield to protect it when it passes through the gap in the rings.
CAROLYN PORCO: You can image how anxious some of us were, knowing that it all hinged on one 90-minute period, where we would have to perfectly just slip into orbit.
NARRATOR: All eyes are on a radio signal being sent by Cassini's auxiliary transmitter. If the signal continues, then flattens out at the bottom of the graph, they'll know that Cassini survived. A $3.2 billion mission and 14 years of work all hinge on this one moment.
DOUG JOHNSTON (NASA Radio Science Subsystem Engineer): The Doppler has flattened out.
NARRATOR: Cassini has arrived. When the images return, Saturn is revealed as never before.
CAROLYN PORCO: I just don't know what to say. I'm kind of speechless.
CHARLES ELACHI: Oh, absolutely exciting! This is the culmination of 22 years of effort, and just seeing the Lord of the Rings in its big glory. We are amazed about the detail we are seeing and the sharpness in the rings. You wait years to have this kind of a moment.
NARRATOR: These remarkable images begin to provide new clues to some of Saturn's oldest mysteries: What are the rings made of? And when were they formed?
Since Voyager, scientists have known the rings are composed of rock-hard ice. Cassini is revealing far more about the composition of the ice.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The rings are made of ice, just like the stuff you've got in your ice cube trays, and almost a hundred percent pure water ice with some small contaminants.
NARRATOR: These contaminants, minute traces of dust that come from meteors, are the key to finding out the age of the rings. The basic principle is simple: the more contamination, the longer the rings have been bombarded and the older they are.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The pollution is sort of a like a clock, because we're pouring material in on top of the rings, and it's dark, non-icy material, so the level of darkness in the rings tells us something about their age.
NARRATOR: To discover the level of pollution in the rings, Cassini is equipped with a spectrometer that translates chemical composition into vivid color images. What they show is surprising.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The spectacular range of structure in the rings with reds and blue and aquas, that was something that was completely unpredictable.
NARRATOR: The images show cleaner ice in shades of blue, the heavier contamination in red. So it appears that the inner rings are older and that the outer rings have been made more recently.
LARRY ESPOSITO: It's definitely the case that there's a gradient in composition across the rings, so that the rings are less icy on the inside and more icy on the outside. As we go to the outside, the particles become younger and fresher.
NARRATOR: These new spectrometer images seem to suggest an intriguing possibility that perhaps Saturn's rings are still being formed. But beyond the riddle of the rings, another chapter in Cassini's voyage is about to begin, its encounter with Titan, Saturn's mystery moon.
Christmas Day, 2004: Mission control navigates Cassini into a safe orbit around Saturn. Now they give the command to release the landing probe. They fire three explosive bolts, and Huygens pushes away from Cassini.
In 1980, Voyager confirmed that Titan is one of only four bodies in the solar system that are solid and have a substantial atmosphere, the conditions that gave rise to life on Earth. Since then, what's beneath Titan's orange veil has captivated scientists' imaginations.
CAROLYN PORCO: Whenever we humans think that we might be approaching something that is vaguely similar to Earth, we get very excited about it. The prospect of something familiar, but yet so distant, and so strange is, is a very exciting combination.
NARRATOR: Billions of years ago on Earth, it's thought that simple molecules may have spontaneously combined to form more complex chemicals that became the building blocks of life. But Earth today is teeming with life; it has taken over the entire planet. This makes Earth problematic for studying the leap from chemistry to life.
JONATHAN LUNINE: It's very difficult to use the Earth as a laboratory for understanding how life began. Life eats all of the organic molecules that are present on the Earth today. If we go to the laboratory and try to simulate how life began, we have limits on time and space. A laboratory experiment might be this big; a laboratory investigator might work for two or four or 10 years perhaps, no more than that. We really need a place where organic evolution is happening on a planetary scale, over billions of years, but is not being ruined by the presence of life.
NARRATOR: For years, scientists have been looking for a place that has a similar primordial chemistry to early Earth. Could Titan be that place? Based on data from the Voyager mission, scientists know the atmosphere of Titan contains nitrogen and methane, made of carbon and hydrogen.
JOHN ZARNECKI: It's dominated by nitrogen, but it has methane and a whole range of hydrocarbon gases, gases made of carbon and hydrogen.
NARRATOR: Scientists also know of one other ingredient that's crucial for making the leap from chemistry to life.
JONATHAN LUNINE: If we were to apply what is the essential ingredient of all life, liquid water, then we may well make some amino acids, which are the building blocks of life.
NARRATOR: But how could liquid water exist on Titan, with a surface that's nearly 300 degrees below zero?
Control of Huygens is based at the European Space Agency command center in Darmstadt, Germany. Finally, the team is about to find out what lies hidden beneath the orange veil.
On January 14, 2005, 150 miles above Titan, Huygens slams into Titan's atmosphere. The time has come to witness Huygens' historic descent to Titan's surface.
JOHN ZARNECKI: The emotion in that control room, I mean, it was absolutely tangible.
NARRATOR: But the scientists will have to be patient. It's still a long wait before any data is received back at Mission Control.
JOHN ZARNECKI: The fact that all the data was transmitted to Cassini—Cassini would then store the data and only some hours later send it back to Earth—meant that there was a delay time of several hours. So it was sort of unreal, knowing that things were happening. We didn't know if they were good things or bad things; they were happening, but we knew nothing about it.
NARRATOR: Now, operating on automatic, one minor malfunction can terminate the whole operation.
MARTIN TOMASKO: We have to have a heat shield that works and protects the probe from burning up during the entry. We have a series of explosive bolts that has to fire to release the heat shield and deploy the parachutes. They all had to work perfectly. If you make a mistake there, you lose the rest of the mission.
NARRATOR: Everything has to be relayed from Huygens to Cassini then back to Earth, so they are not expecting to receive any news of Huygens' fate for hours. But then, they get a surprise. They pick up a signal, not from the orbiting mother ship, but direct from Huygens itself.
LEONID GURVITS (Project Manager, Huygens Very Long Baseline Interferometry [VLBI]): A few minutes ago we have received confirmation of the carrier signal from Huygens.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON: It tells us that the probe is alive, the entry has been successful, we are under parachute, and the probe is transmitting.
NARRATOR: In Green Bank, West Virginia, the giant 360-foot dish of the Robert C. Byrd radio telescope is pointing directly at Titan. It is listening for even the faintest of signals.
LEONID GURVITS: We were kind of eavesdropping on the conversation between Huygens and Cassini. So the strength of the signal which we deal with is practically the same as the strength of the signal from a mobile phone, but located, not in your pocket or my pocket or somewhere nearby, but at a distance of one billion kilometers, on Titan.
NARRATOR: Receiving a radio signal from Huygens is the first indication that all is going according to plan.
JOHN ZARNECKI: This is absolutely fantastic news. It's like hearing the ringing tone on the phone. It tells us the phone is working. There's no information on it yet but it's, it's absolutely fantastic.
NARRATOR: The radio signal from Huygens is too weak to relay any scientific data. For that, Mission Control will need to wait for Cassini.
JOHN ZARNECKI: We were told to expect the data at 15:24, Central European Time, in the afternoon. And, I remember, 15:24 came and went, and we were looking at the screens. We knew where the numbers should have appeared and absolutely nothing.
MARTIN TOMASKO: And we're thinking, "How is it possible that everything could have worked well on Huygens and we wouldn't get data?" And we say, "Oh yes, it could have worked perfectly on the probe, but if the orbiter didn't receive it, this all could, we could still lose the whole thing."
JOHN ZARNECKI: You know, the minutes ticked by, it got quieter and quieter; we were looking at each other.
MARTIN TOMASKO: And two minutes goes by, and four minutes goes by, and six minutes goes by, and there's still nothing. And we're all just shaking our heads, and there's just gloom, absolute gloom over the whole audience.
JOHN ZARNECKI: 15:30—so this was six minutes after we were led to believe the data would come through—I can remember looking at one particular screen, and where there was a large gap before, suddenly a whole column of green figures appeared. And this was the first science data from Huygens.
NARRATOR: Finally, the Cassini mother ship is sending all of Huygens' scientific data back to Earth. Although the probe actually landed on Titan's surface some hours ago, only now can the scientists begin their own descent onto Saturn's mysterious moon. But for Martin Tomasko, the first images he receives are murky.
MARTIN TOMASKO: We saw a lot of inside of the milk bottle pictures in the beginning, you know? It's just all washed out. Somewhere between 50 and 70 kilometers, we thought we'd come out through the bottom of the haze, have clear views of the surface. Well, that was not the case.
NARRATOR: If the haze continues all the way to the ground, Huygens will fail to obtain crucial photographic data.
MARTIN TOMASKO: We finally got close enough to the ground to see the ground through the haze, at 30 kilometers altitude only, and, and that was, that was beautiful. That was, that was the first stuff we saw.
NARRATOR: After decades of wondering what the surface of Titan looks like, scientists now get their first glimpse beneath the haze and discover a surprisingly Earthlike geography.
RALPH LORENZ: I sort of looked, looked up and there was this projection screen, and the first thing you see is these river valleys everywhere, and you think, "Wow!"
MARTIN TOMASKO: All of a sudden, you could see these drainage channels, and it seemed to come together over, over the highlands, over the bright material. And when you got to the dark material, there was this low region that looked like a flat lakebed. You know, after all this you go down through the haze, and there it is, this dry riverbank that looks like a backyard in Arizona somewhere.
NARRATOR: Having survived the descent unscathed, the most anticipated moment in the entire mission is the touchdown on Titan.
Upon contact, Huygens' penetrometer reveals the nature of the surface at the landing site.
JOHN ZARNECKI: We're sitting on icy grains, which have the consistency of sand. It's sort of gravel, fine gravel you might see on a river shore or on a dried up lakebed.
NARRATOR: When the probe, hot from the friction of entry, contacts the icy surface, the surface melts and Huygens' chemical sniffer detects a curious spike.
JONATHAN LUNINE: The amount of methane that the chemical sniffer was detecting jumped very quickly, and it jumped up in such a way that there must have been, underneath this warm probe, a pool of liquid methane.
NARRATOR: From over a billion miles away, Huygens' landing confirms what scientists had suspected, that not only its atmosphere, but also the surface of Titan contains the organic compound, methane.
It has been nearly 25 years since Voyager took this first hazy image. Now, with Huygens, comes this first close-up image from the surface of Titan.
MARTIN TOMASKO: Can you show the first picture, cropped 448 on the screen please? And we'll see Titan unveiled, as we haven't seen it before.
NARRATOR: Huygens' camera reveals its landing site as a dry riverbed, with rounded pebbles made of ice, beneath an orange sky.
JOHN ZARNECKI: If that image alone was the only piece of data produced by the Huygens' mission, I would say that it was worthwhile.
NARRATOR: But that image is not alone. Others reveal networks of rivers, hills, and valleys, and a surface made of damp sand, a mixture of icy pebbles and liquid methane.
Huygens, mankind's furthest outpost in the solar system, transmits data and images for 180 minutes, then dies. But Cassini, its mother ship, lives on. From its orbit around Saturn, it peers down as it passes over the mystery moon and continues to reveal a whole new picture of Titan.
JONATHAN LUNINE: Cassini was definitely not just about getting Huygens to Titan; Cassini was about exploring Titan. The orbiter has been unveiling Titan in, in its own very special way.
NARRATOR: Using remote sensing, infrared and radar imaging, Cassini pierces through Titan's thick haze and reveals that Titan's surface has many familiar Earthlike features.
JOHN ZARNECKI: We're seeing river channels, we're seeing erosion. But, whereas on Earth we're talking about rocks and liquid water, on Titan it's ice and liquid methane.
NARRATOR: This is a world suffused with methane, raining down from the atmosphere, carving out hills and valleys, eroding ice rocks and finally sinking into the sandy surface.
In addition to erosion from methane rivers, Cassini reveals that Titan's surface appears to have also been modeled by lava flows. But this is lava as never before seen.
ROBERT BROWN (University of Arizona): We saw some structures on the surface of Titan that looked very curious; they looked like volcanoes. But these are very different than the kinds of volcanoes that you would expect to see on Earth. These are what we call cryovolcanoes.
NARRATOR: Volcanoes on Earth erupt molten rock, but the cryovolcanoes on Titan's frozen world erupt something altogether different.
ROBERT BROWN: The working fluid for a volcano on Titan is water, but it's water mixed with ammonia. And the result of that is it lowers the freezing temperature of water from zero degrees centigrade, down to as low as minus-100 degrees centigrade.
NARRATOR: If you could climb up to the summit of a volcano like this and look down in its caldera, you would see a very sticky viscous fluid that's literally oozing out of the ground and flowing down the flanks of this volcano, much like a very, very fast glacier.
Methane in its rivers, nitrogen in its atmosphere and now the presence of this bizarre form of water—Huygens and Cassini have made a remarkable discovery: Titan may, indeed, have all the key ingredients to form the basic building blocks of life.
JONATHAN LUNINE: These things all operate on Titan, under exotic conditions, in much the way that they operate on the Earth, but there's no life on Titan. And so it's telling us that the basic conditions for a world where life can begin could occur in many places, but if temperatures are too cold, the whole process is going to be slowed down. And so, we're looking at an Earthlike world where the chemistry has just not gotten to the point yet.
NARRATOR: In these oozing volcanoes, it could be that organic molecules are too frozen to combine and form the more complex molecules of life. But beneath the surface, where it's warmer, there could be living microbes feeding on organic molecules and producing some of the methane in Titan's atmosphere.
Cassini will orbit Saturn for years to come, searching for more clues to the oldest mysteries of the Lord of the Rings, the age of the enigmatic rings and how they were formed. And the spacecraft will continue to fly by Saturn's many moons.
Recently, Cassini revealed that Saturn's fourth largest moon, Enceladus, is erupting plumes of icy crystals. This suggests that pockets of water may be just beneath the moon's surface, adding Enceladus to the short list of places in our solar system that are potentially suitable for life.
And Cassini will continue to visit Saturn's largest moon, a world both alien and Earthlike, a place that still holds many secrets: Titan, the mystery moon of Saturn.
On NOVA's Web site, hear intriguing sounds from the mission, explore the icy geysers of Enceladus, and take your own voyage to the mystery moon. Find it on PBS.org.
Educators and educational institutions can order this, or other NOVA programs, for $19.95 plus shipping and handling. Call WGBH Boston Video at 1-800-255-9424.
NASA and the European Space Agency are teaming up for the most ambitious unmanned space project ever launched. Across more than 2 billion miles, it will battle the bitter cold of space, thread the rings of Saturn, survive the heat of entry and brutal impact of landing, and beam pictures and data back from Titan, its largest moon.
NOVA follows this fantastic voyage to Saturn, on a quest to solve some of the greatest mysteries of this alien world. Up next, Voyage to the Mystery Moon.
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NARRATOR: Saturn, Lord of the Rings, few sights in the solar system are more strikingly beautiful than this celestial sphere, embraced by its majestic rings.
This giant ball of gas, 750 times larger than Earth, visible as a golden star, has captivated our imaginations since we first looked up at the night sky. But it wasn't until 1980, when we were able to get a close-up look at the sixth planet from the Sun.
The Voyager deep space probes flew past Saturn and sent back tantalizing glimpses of this distant world, and Saturn's mysterious rings were seen closer than ever before.
CAROLYN PORCO (Space Science Institute): Voyager got there and found this bewildering array of, of structure in the rings. And people set about trying to explain it right away.
NARRATOR: What are the rings? How were they formed? When were they formed? And how long will they last?
But the rings weren't the only feature Voyager explored. For the first time, detailed images of Saturn's moons were sent back—more than 40 in all, from dozens of minor moons, to one nearly half the size of Earth. It was named after Saturn's mythological brothers, the giant Titans.
Titan was unlike any moon that had ever been seen. It had clouds and an atmosphere 10 times denser than Earth's. Frustratingly, a thick layer of orange haze shrouded its surface.
CHARLES ELACHI (Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory): We saw this fuzzy ball, and the immediate reaction is, "What's below those clouds?" You know, "What are these clouds made of? What is hidden behind that layer?"
NARRATOR: Whatever was hidden, it had to be a solid body, or else its atmosphere would have long ago escaped into space.
As Voyager confirmed, the atmosphere was nitrogen-rich and included organic molecules, perhaps resembling the atmosphere of the early Earth. Could Titan play a unique role in helping us understand the origin of life on Earth?
JONATHAN LUNINE (University of Arizona): If you look at our solar system, there are only four bodies that have atmospheres and are actually solid bodies themselves: the Earth, Venus, Mars and Titan.
Venus is just so hot that one can melt lead on the surface; there's...there are no organic molecules. Mars today is very cold, very dry, very thin, not a good place for organic molecules. And so we're left with Titan.
NARRATOR: Voyager moved on—out towards Uranus, Neptune and beyond—but Voyager's spectacular images of Saturn and its rings, and this enticing glimpse of Titan, left scientists wanting more.
LARRY ESPOSITO (University of Colorado at Boulder): The combination of the spectacular structure in the rings, the hazy atmosphere of Titan, just left every scientist with a great curiosity to explain those things that we had seen with the Voyager fly-bys. Immediately, there was a feeling that we had to return to Saturn and stay there for a longer time.
NARRATOR: So in 1990, NASA and ESA, the European Space Agency, team up for an unprecedented collaboration, a new mission to Saturn, with a landing on Titan.
To get there, they need to build a spacecraft to travel more than two billion miles, battle the bitter cold of space, thread through the rings of Saturn, withstand the intense heat of entry and the brutal impact of landing, and ultimately beam back pictures and data.
Their odds of success seem about as likely as throwing a basketball from NASA's launch site at Cape Canaveral, Florida, through a hoop in ESA's command center in Germany, without touching the rim.
The spacecraft they design to accomplish this mission, they name Cassini, after the 17th century astronomer who discovered gaps in Saturn's rings.
Built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Cassini deep space probe carries an amazingly complex array of instruments. The eyes of Cassini are two sophisticated cameras.
CAROLYN PORCO: One is a very long focal length, very high resolution, but you get little postage stamp-like coverage. And so you want to also carry a camera with a larger field of view, shorter focal length, that covers a greater amount of territory, so you can put your little postage stamp coverage in context, in geological context.
NARRATOR: Cassini is also loaded with a powerful radar, designed to punch through Titan's hazy atmosphere. And that's not all. Riding aboard Cassini on this seven-year mission is a small probe, built by the European Space Agency. Named Huygens, after the astronomer who discovered Titan in 1655, this probe is designed to actually land on the moon's surface. It will see, sniff, touch and listen to the mysterious moon, radioing back images and data to orbiting Cassini, under conditions that no one can precisely predict.
RALPH LORENZ (University of Arizona): The atmosphere could have been thicker than we thought or thinner than we thought, warmer or cooler. We had no idea what the surface was, so there was no guarantee that the probe would keep working after it hit the ground.
NARRATOR: The engineers need to make sure that Huygens is tough enough for the job. Every aspect of the super sensitive probe's design and construction must be put to the test.
When the probe slams into Titan's atmosphere, it will produce temperatures of over 20,000 degrees Fahrenheit, more than twice the surface temperature of the Sun.
And it's this heat shield that is designed to withstand it.
If the probe survives the heat of entry, successful landing will depend on the precise opening of three small parachutes. Packed for seven years, these parachutes have to deploy, unfold and inflate in sequence or the mission will be lost.
During the two-and-a-half-hour descent, specially designed onboard cameras will act as the eyes of the probe. It is these cameras that will send home the first glimpse of Titan's surface.
For Huygens' imaging specialist, Martin Tomasko, it is imperative that his cameras don't miss a thing.
MARTIN TOMASKO (University of Arizona): What we're trying to get is kind of the skydiver's eye view, as if you were outside the probe and falling down through the atmosphere. We don't want to land near some interesting object like the Grand Canyon and not know it's there. To see through the haze has been notoriously difficult. We hope that our big advantage is that we'll fall through the haze, and eventually we'll be under most of the haze and be able to see the surface that much more clearly.
NARRATOR: After descending through the orange shroud, the climax of the mission is touchdown on Titan's surface.
JOHN ZARNECKI (The Open University): We set up a facility in the lab that would enable us to simulate what would happen when Huygens hit the surface of Titan.
This device called a penetrometer, will measure the force of first contact. You get a very different signal if you strike, for example, a sheet of solid ice, if you hit semi-compacted snow, if you, if you struck a liquid—if you landed in a lake, for example.
You know, we used to joke and say we would either thud, squelch or splash down, and that really is quite a good description, because it could have been any of those scenarios or a mix of them.
NARRATOR: By 1997, the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft is built and assembled, but there is one major challenge: together, their weight is massive.
ROBERT MITCHELL (Cassini Program Manager, Jet Propulsion Laboratory): The Cassini spacecraft is the largest interplanetary satellite that NASA has ever built and launched.
NARRATOR: The big problem is how to get this six-ton leviathan into space. The most powerful rocket on Earth, the mighty Titan IV, is selected for launch, delivering over 3.4 million pounds of thrust. But even this will not be enough. For not only does Cassini have to break free from Earth's gravity, it has to travel almost a billion miles to Saturn, on a small amount of fuel.
The only way for Cassini to make the journey is to pick up additional energy from a flight path that takes advantage of an unusual convergence of the planets.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The energy that we needed to get out in the solar system, out to the planet Saturn had to be supplemented by...partially provided by gravitational encounters with the planets. The important thing is to gather energy from the gravity of the planet you're flying by.
NARRATOR: First, Cassini will be routed via the Earth's nearest neighbor, Venus. This planet's gravitational pull will accelerate Cassini, increasing its speed by over 8,000 miles per hour, but this still will not be enough. Cassini will need to return for a second boost from Venus. Then it's the Earth's turn, accelerating Cassini with a fling out towards its next rendezvous, Jupiter. Eventually, the spacecraft will clock up a speed of 50,000 miles per hour before reaching its final destination -- Saturn. That's the theory, but will it work?
October 15, 1997: With the planets in perfect alignment, from NASA's launch site at Cape Canaveral, in Florida, Cassini blasts into the night sky.
RALPH LORENZ: It sort of lit this cloud up, like a Chinese lantern, from within. It was quite spectacular and, and you just think, "Wow, you know. It's out of our hands now."
NARRATOR: The seven-year journey, covering 2.2 billion miles in all, begins. With Cassini-Huygens now en route to Saturn, scientists will soon have the opportunity to explore the mystery of Saturn's majestic rings and its enigmatic moon, Titan.
Two years into its journey, the spacecraft loops around Venus a second time and swings back past the Earth. Here, the JPL scientists check out Cassini's high-power radar. It scans a huge swath of South America, and everything is in working order. The radar seems to be operating flawlessly.
Next, they perform a simulation to test the radio link between Huygens and Cassini.
JOHN ZARNECKI: The Huygens probe itself doesn't have enough power, and it doesn't have a large enough dish to transmit its data, the scientific data that it collects on Titan, directly back to the Earth. So what will happen is that it uses the Cassini spacecraft as a data relay.
NARRATOR: The test is to make sure that Cassini is receiving all the data from Huygens, but when the results come back, they are alarming.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON (Huygens Mission Manager, European Space Agency): We were expecting to receive all the simulated data. Unfortunately, we did not receive very many of those data. We lost, well, it's...we lost maybe 90 percent of the data, sometimes even all of the data.
NARRATOR: If Cassini fails to receive the data from Huygens, then when the probe descends to Titan, there will be no results, no pictures, nothing. A crucial part of the mission will be lost.
Huygens' European team calls a meeting to discuss the situation. As one of NASA's imaging specialists for Huygens, Martin Tomasko cannot believe what he is hearing.
MARTIN TOMASKO: They said, "We've performed the test, and we didn't get any signal, but the test accomplished all of its objectives." And some of us were sitting around the table saying, "What? What exactly are you trying to sell us?" You know, you've accomplished the objectives of conducting the test, but you've actually succeeded in proving the thing is not going to work.
NARRATOR: Six months of painstaking detective work finally pinpoints the problem. When Huygens is descending to Titan, Cassini will be speeding away from it at 12,000 miles per hour; they will no longer be able to communicate on the same frequency.
JOHN ZARNECKI: It was enough to, essentially, put the link between the two out of alignment. It was as if Huygens was transmitting on, on Radio One, on one frequency, and Cassini was receiving on Radio Two, a slightly different frequency, so this was potentially disastrous.
NARRATOR: Retuning the receiver is impossible. Cassini is out in space, over 300 million miles away.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON: There was no way we could repair, so we had to find a new mission scenario which would, which would allow us to live with this problem but still to recover the, the whole mission.
NARRATOR: After months of research, they devise an ingenious plan. Although they can't retune Cassini's receiver, they can shift the signal it is picking up by using a basic principal known as the Doppler Effect.
If they can slow Cassini down, it will receive the radio waves that Huygens is sending at a lower frequency, solving the problem.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON: All in all, it took us six months to find a solution, but it took us two years to design all the detail of the solution and to test it. We are not going to lose any science, so it's a very successful recovery.
NARRATOR: Both teams are now hopeful that Huygens has a good chance of sending back its precious data, when it finally reaches Titan.
By the year 2,000, Cassini is now a billion and a half miles out in space and arrives at Jupiter, the giant of the solar system. With a planet twice as massive as all the others combined, Cassini's cameras face their biggest test yet.
Jupiter's majesty is revealed as never before. Its swirling gaseous atmosphere is seen with breathtaking clarity. But Cassini has to move on across another 500 million miles of space before it reaches its final destination.
For imaging team leader Carolyn Porco, the Jupiter pictures are a triumph. But her true goal is the planet she has devoted her career and heart to studying, Saturn.
CAROLYN PORCO: To know that we can know so much about our solar system and about our cosmos, for me, makes life meaningful. It's very much like being in love. It's very much that kind of a relationship, where you want to know more and, and you want to be one with the person you're in love with or the topic that you're studying. It's, it's, it's kind of this...it's a connection. It's really a connection. And for me, it's, it's like being allowed a glimpse of the miraculous.
NARRATOR: Spring of 2004: Cassini is closing in on Saturn, but just before contact, mission planners calculate a precise course to send the spacecraft past Phoebe, Saturn's outermost moon.
Until now, all that scientists had seen of Phoebe is this picture, taken by Voyager, 23 years ago. But this time Phoebe is in the cross hairs of Cassini's powerful cameras. Picture after picture returns with astounding detail.
CAROLYN PORCO: We buzzed Phoebe, okay? We came within 2,000 kilometers of its surface. You could reach out and touch it, is what it looked like. So it's very exciting. We saw features that were, were 30 meters across.
NARRATOR: The images of Phoebe reveal an ancient surface, pitted with craters created over billions of years. But Phoebe is just an appetizer, a taste of what is to come.
June 2004: At the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, NASA's team has piloted the Cassini spacecraft across 2.2 billion miles of space and is still right on target, fast approaching one of our solar system's greatest enigmas, the rings of Saturn.
Very little is known about them.
CAROLYN PORCO: The questions that we scientists have about Saturn's rings are the questions that an ordinary person might be moved to ask when first seeing them, you know? "What caused them? How did they get there? How long have they been around? How long are they going to last?"
NARRATOR: Answering these questions is one of Cassini's prime objectives. A good opportunity for close-range observation will come as mission control maneuvers Cassini into orbit around Saturn, because that means passing right through the rings.
Voyager revealed that the rings are made up of rock-hard ice, ranging in size from a grain of sugar to a large house. The rings, just 300 feet thick and a vast 38,000 miles wide, are chaotic and dangerous.
LARRY ESPOSITO: All the ring particles, billions and billions of them, are in orbit around the planet Saturn, and they're moving at quite a clip, something like 10 kilometers per second—faster than a high-speed bullet. If you were in Saturn's rings, you would be in a mass of particles that were bumping into each other and rolling over each other. If you were a ring particle, you would get bombarded from one side and then from the other, as one particle bounced off of another, all around you.
NARRATOR: Entering directly into the rings would be suicide. But NASA's JPL team has a plan. They calculate a course for the spacecraft through a 15,000 mile gap in Saturn's rings. Even so, with one small miscalculation, Cassini could be torn apart.
LARRY ESPOSITO: Even a very small particle could be the end of Cassini. If it hits a particle as small as a grain of rice, that would be enough, because of the high speed at which it's moving, to end the mission.
NARRATOR: But particles from the rings are not the only danger that Cassini faces. It also has to slow down. That means firing up its main engine. Any malfunction, and Cassini will simply fly past Saturn, lost forever in the void of space.
CHARLES ELACHI: That engine had not been used very frequently over a period of seven years; that makes you nervous. You know, it's like you have a car, a brand new car that you put in the garage, and every once in a while, you turn it on. And then you have an emergency, and you get in the car, and you turn it on—it better work.
NARRATOR: June 30, 2004: The press gathers at JPL for news of the most critical part of the seven-year trek across the solar system.
The ring insertion maneuver begins at 7:36 p.m. First, Cassini rotates to use its giant antenna as a shield to protect it when it passes through the gap in the rings.
CAROLYN PORCO: You can image how anxious some of us were, knowing that it all hinged on one 90-minute period, where we would have to perfectly just slip into orbit.
NARRATOR: All eyes are on a radio signal being sent by Cassini's auxiliary transmitter. If the signal continues, then flattens out at the bottom of the graph, they'll know that Cassini survived. A $3.2 billion mission and 14 years of work all hinge on this one moment.
DOUG JOHNSTON (NASA Radio Science Subsystem Engineer): The Doppler has flattened out.
NARRATOR: Cassini has arrived. When the images return, Saturn is revealed as never before.
CAROLYN PORCO: I just don't know what to say. I'm kind of speechless.
CHARLES ELACHI: Oh, absolutely exciting! This is the culmination of 22 years of effort, and just seeing the Lord of the Rings in its big glory. We are amazed about the detail we are seeing and the sharpness in the rings. You wait years to have this kind of a moment.
NARRATOR: These remarkable images begin to provide new clues to some of Saturn's oldest mysteries: What are the rings made of? And when were they formed?
Since Voyager, scientists have known the rings are composed of rock-hard ice. Cassini is revealing far more about the composition of the ice.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The rings are made of ice, just like the stuff you've got in your ice cube trays, and almost a hundred percent pure water ice with some small contaminants.
NARRATOR: These contaminants, minute traces of dust that come from meteors, are the key to finding out the age of the rings. The basic principle is simple: the more contamination, the longer the rings have been bombarded and the older they are.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The pollution is sort of a like a clock, because we're pouring material in on top of the rings, and it's dark, non-icy material, so the level of darkness in the rings tells us something about their age.
NARRATOR: To discover the level of pollution in the rings, Cassini is equipped with a spectrometer that translates chemical composition into vivid color images. What they show is surprising.
LARRY ESPOSITO: The spectacular range of structure in the rings with reds and blue and aquas, that was something that was completely unpredictable.
NARRATOR: The images show cleaner ice in shades of blue, the heavier contamination in red. So it appears that the inner rings are older and that the outer rings have been made more recently.
LARRY ESPOSITO: It's definitely the case that there's a gradient in composition across the rings, so that the rings are less icy on the inside and more icy on the outside. As we go to the outside, the particles become younger and fresher.
NARRATOR: These new spectrometer images seem to suggest an intriguing possibility that perhaps Saturn's rings are still being formed. But beyond the riddle of the rings, another chapter in Cassini's voyage is about to begin, its encounter with Titan, Saturn's mystery moon.
Christmas Day, 2004: Mission control navigates Cassini into a safe orbit around Saturn. Now they give the command to release the landing probe. They fire three explosive bolts, and Huygens pushes away from Cassini.
In 1980, Voyager confirmed that Titan is one of only four bodies in the solar system that are solid and have a substantial atmosphere, the conditions that gave rise to life on Earth. Since then, what's beneath Titan's orange veil has captivated scientists' imaginations.
CAROLYN PORCO: Whenever we humans think that we might be approaching something that is vaguely similar to Earth, we get very excited about it. The prospect of something familiar, but yet so distant, and so strange is, is a very exciting combination.
NARRATOR: Billions of years ago on Earth, it's thought that simple molecules may have spontaneously combined to form more complex chemicals that became the building blocks of life. But Earth today is teeming with life; it has taken over the entire planet. This makes Earth problematic for studying the leap from chemistry to life.
JONATHAN LUNINE: It's very difficult to use the Earth as a laboratory for understanding how life began. Life eats all of the organic molecules that are present on the Earth today. If we go to the laboratory and try to simulate how life began, we have limits on time and space. A laboratory experiment might be this big; a laboratory investigator might work for two or four or 10 years perhaps, no more than that. We really need a place where organic evolution is happening on a planetary scale, over billions of years, but is not being ruined by the presence of life.
NARRATOR: For years, scientists have been looking for a place that has a similar primordial chemistry to early Earth. Could Titan be that place? Based on data from the Voyager mission, scientists know the atmosphere of Titan contains nitrogen and methane, made of carbon and hydrogen.
JOHN ZARNECKI: It's dominated by nitrogen, but it has methane and a whole range of hydrocarbon gases, gases made of carbon and hydrogen.
NARRATOR: Scientists also know of one other ingredient that's crucial for making the leap from chemistry to life.
JONATHAN LUNINE: If we were to apply what is the essential ingredient of all life, liquid water, then we may well make some amino acids, which are the building blocks of life.
NARRATOR: But how could liquid water exist on Titan, with a surface that's nearly 300 degrees below zero?
Control of Huygens is based at the European Space Agency command center in Darmstadt, Germany. Finally, the team is about to find out what lies hidden beneath the orange veil.
On January 14, 2005, 150 miles above Titan, Huygens slams into Titan's atmosphere. The time has come to witness Huygens' historic descent to Titan's surface.
JOHN ZARNECKI: The emotion in that control room, I mean, it was absolutely tangible.
NARRATOR: But the scientists will have to be patient. It's still a long wait before any data is received back at Mission Control.
JOHN ZARNECKI: The fact that all the data was transmitted to Cassini—Cassini would then store the data and only some hours later send it back to Earth—meant that there was a delay time of several hours. So it was sort of unreal, knowing that things were happening. We didn't know if they were good things or bad things; they were happening, but we knew nothing about it.
NARRATOR: Now, operating on automatic, one minor malfunction can terminate the whole operation.
MARTIN TOMASKO: We have to have a heat shield that works and protects the probe from burning up during the entry. We have a series of explosive bolts that has to fire to release the heat shield and deploy the parachutes. They all had to work perfectly. If you make a mistake there, you lose the rest of the mission.
NARRATOR: Everything has to be relayed from Huygens to Cassini then back to Earth, so they are not expecting to receive any news of Huygens' fate for hours. But then, they get a surprise. They pick up a signal, not from the orbiting mother ship, but direct from Huygens itself.
LEONID GURVITS (Project Manager, Huygens Very Long Baseline Interferometry [VLBI]): A few minutes ago we have received confirmation of the carrier signal from Huygens.
JEAN-PIERRE LEBRETON: It tells us that the probe is alive, the entry has been successful, we are under parachute, and the probe is transmitting.
NARRATOR: In Green Bank, West Virginia, the giant 360-foot dish of the Robert C. Byrd radio telescope is pointing directly at Titan. It is listening for even the faintest of signals.
LEONID GURVITS: We were kind of eavesdropping on the conversation between Huygens and Cassini. So the strength of the signal which we deal with is practically the same as the strength of the signal from a mobile phone, but located, not in your pocket or my pocket or somewhere nearby, but at a distance of one billion kilometers, on Titan.
NARRATOR: Receiving a radio signal from Huygens is the first indication that all is going according to plan.
JOHN ZARNECKI: This is absolutely fantastic news. It's like hearing the ringing tone on the phone. It tells us the phone is working. There's no information on it yet but it's, it's absolutely fantastic.
NARRATOR: The radio signal from Huygens is too weak to relay any scientific data. For that, Mission Control will need to wait for Cassini.
JOHN ZARNECKI: We were told to expect the data at 15:24, Central European Time, in the afternoon. And, I remember, 15:24 came and went, and we were looking at the screens. We knew where the numbers should have appeared and absolutely nothing.
MARTIN TOMASKO: And we're thinking, "How is it possible that everything could have worked well on Huygens and we wouldn't get data?" And we say, "Oh yes, it could have worked perfectly on the probe, but if the orbiter didn't receive it, this all could, we could still lose the whole thing."
JOHN ZARNECKI: You know, the minutes ticked by, it got quieter and quieter; we were looking at each other.
MARTIN TOMASKO: And two minutes goes by, and four minutes goes by, and six minutes goes by, and there's still nothing. And we're all just shaking our heads, and there's just gloom, absolute gloom over the whole audience.
JOHN ZARNECKI: 15:30—so this was six minutes after we were led to believe the data would come through—I can remember looking at one particular screen, and where there was a large gap before, suddenly a whole column of green figures appeared. And this was the first science data from Huygens.
NARRATOR: Finally, the Cassini mother ship is sending all of Huygens' scientific data back to Earth. Although the probe actually landed on Titan's surface some hours ago, only now can the scientists begin their own descent onto Saturn's mysterious moon. But for Martin Tomasko, the first images he receives are murky.
MARTIN TOMASKO: We saw a lot of inside of the milk bottle pictures in the beginning, you know? It's just all washed out. Somewhere between 50 and 70 kilometers, we thought we'd come out through the bottom of the haze, have clear views of the surface. Well, that was not the case.
NARRATOR: If the haze continues all the way to the ground, Huygens will fail to obtain crucial photographic data.
MARTIN TOMASKO: We finally got close enough to the ground to see the ground through the haze, at 30 kilometers altitude only, and, and that was, that was beautiful. That was, that was the first stuff we saw.
NARRATOR: After decades of wondering what the surface of Titan looks like, scientists now get their first glimpse beneath the haze and discover a surprisingly Earthlike geography.
RALPH LORENZ: I sort of looked, looked up and there was this projection screen, and the first thing you see is these river valleys everywhere, and you think, "Wow!"
MARTIN TOMASKO: All of a sudden, you could see these drainage channels, and it seemed to come together over, over the highlands, over the bright material. And when you got to the dark material, there was this low region that looked like a flat lakebed. You know, after all this you go down through the haze, and there it is, this dry riverbank that looks like a backyard in Arizona somewhere.
NARRATOR: Having survived the descent unscathed, the most anticipated moment in the entire mission is the touchdown on Titan.
Upon contact, Huygens' penetrometer reveals the nature of the surface at the landing site.
JOHN ZARNECKI: We're sitting on icy grains, which have the consistency of sand. It's sort of gravel, fine gravel you might see on a river shore or on a dried up lakebed.
NARRATOR: When the probe, hot from the friction of entry, contacts the icy surface, the surface melts and Huygens' chemical sniffer detects a curious spike.
JONATHAN LUNINE: The amount of methane that the chemical sniffer was detecting jumped very quickly, and it jumped up in such a way that there must have been, underneath this warm probe, a pool of liquid methane.
NARRATOR: From over a billion miles away, Huygens' landing confirms what scientists had suspected, that not only its atmosphere, but also the surface of Titan contains the organic compound, methane.
It has been nearly 25 years since Voyager took this first hazy image. Now, with Huygens, comes this first close-up image from the surface of Titan.
MARTIN TOMASKO: Can you show the first picture, cropped 448 on the screen please? And we'll see Titan unveiled, as we haven't seen it before.
NARRATOR: Huygens' camera reveals its landing site as a dry riverbed, with rounded pebbles made of ice, beneath an orange sky.
JOHN ZARNECKI: If that image alone was the only piece of data produced by the Huygens' mission, I would say that it was worthwhile.
NARRATOR: But that image is not alone. Others reveal networks of rivers, hills, and valleys, and a surface made of damp sand, a mixture of icy pebbles and liquid methane.
Huygens, mankind's furthest outpost in the solar system, transmits data and images for 180 minutes, then dies. But Cassini, its mother ship, lives on. From its orbit around Saturn, it peers down as it passes over the mystery moon and continues to reveal a whole new picture of Titan.
JONATHAN LUNINE: Cassini was definitely not just about getting Huygens to Titan; Cassini was about exploring Titan. The orbiter has been unveiling Titan in, in its own very special way.
NARRATOR: Using remote sensing, infrared and radar imaging, Cassini pierces through Titan's thick haze and reveals that Titan's surface has many familiar Earthlike features.
JOHN ZARNECKI: We're seeing river channels, we're seeing erosion. But, whereas on Earth we're talking about rocks and liquid water, on Titan it's ice and liquid methane.
NARRATOR: This is a world suffused with methane, raining down from the atmosphere, carving out hills and valleys, eroding ice rocks and finally sinking into the sandy surface.
In addition to erosion from methane rivers, Cassini reveals that Titan's surface appears to have also been modeled by lava flows. But this is lava as never before seen.
ROBERT BROWN (University of Arizona): We saw some structures on the surface of Titan that looked very curious; they looked like volcanoes. But these are very different than the kinds of volcanoes that you would expect to see on Earth. These are what we call cryovolcanoes.
NARRATOR: Volcanoes on Earth erupt molten rock, but the cryovolcanoes on Titan's frozen world erupt something altogether different.
ROBERT BROWN: The working fluid for a volcano on Titan is water, but it's water mixed with ammonia. And the result of that is it lowers the freezing temperature of water from zero degrees centigrade, down to as low as minus-100 degrees centigrade.
NARRATOR: If you could climb up to the summit of a volcano like this and look down in its caldera, you would see a very sticky viscous fluid that's literally oozing out of the ground and flowing down the flanks of this volcano, much like a very, very fast glacier.
Methane in its rivers, nitrogen in its atmosphere and now the presence of this bizarre form of water—Huygens and Cassini have made a remarkable discovery: Titan may, indeed, have all the key ingredients to form the basic building blocks of life.
JONATHAN LUNINE: These things all operate on Titan, under exotic conditions, in much the way that they operate on the Earth, but there's no life on Titan. And so it's telling us that the basic conditions for a world where life can begin could occur in many places, but if temperatures are too cold, the whole process is going to be slowed down. And so, we're looking at an Earthlike world where the chemistry has just not gotten to the point yet.
NARRATOR: In these oozing volcanoes, it could be that organic molecules are too frozen to combine and form the more complex molecules of life. But beneath the surface, where it's warmer, there could be living microbes feeding on organic molecules and producing some of the methane in Titan's atmosphere.
Cassini will orbit Saturn for years to come, searching for more clues to the oldest mysteries of the Lord of the Rings, the age of the enigmatic rings and how they were formed. And the spacecraft will continue to fly by Saturn's many moons.
Recently, Cassini revealed that Saturn's fourth largest moon, Enceladus, is erupting plumes of icy crystals. This suggests that pockets of water may be just beneath the moon's surface, adding Enceladus to the short list of places in our solar system that are potentially suitable for life.
And Cassini will continue to visit Saturn's largest moon, a world both alien and Earthlike, a place that still holds many secrets: Titan, the mystery moon of Saturn.
On NOVA's Web site, hear intriguing sounds from the mission, explore the icy geysers of Enceladus, and take your own voyage to the mystery moon. Find it on PBS.org.
Educators and educational institutions can order this, or other NOVA programs, for $19.95 plus shipping and handling. Call WGBH Boston Video at 1-800-255-9424.
Friday, June 3, 2011
Thursday, June 2, 2011
NOVA: The Great Inca Rebellion
NARRATOR: On the outskirts of Lima, Peru, bodies emerge from the sand. Their wounds are horrific.
MELISSA MURPHY (Biological Anthropologist): This person died a very violent death.
NARRATOR: These skeletons may revolutionize our understanding of one of the pivotal events of world history, the Spanish conquest of the Inca.
For 500 years, we have had to rely on chronicles written by the Spanish conquistadors to understand what happened. Those chronicles tell us how, in 1532, Francisco Pizarro arrived at the frontiers of the Inca Empire with fewer than 200 men. Ever since, historians have puzzled at the events that followed.
As Inca messengers spread news of the tiny invasion around the Empire, why didn't the huge Inca armies mobilize? How could a handful of Spanish adventurers bring the greatest indigenous civilization of South America to its knees?
Was it the vast superiority of the Spanish weapons? Was it European diseases to which the Inca had no resistance? Or was it something else?
These skeletons may hold the answers. For the first time, science can open a window on the real events of the conquest of Peru. The discoveries are amazing.
ALBERT HARPER (Forensic Scientist): I think we're looking at the first gunshot wound in the New World.
NARRATOR: A story of the conquest never told before, a story of secret alliances and betrayal...
EFRAIN TRELLES (Historian): ...a great cover up that took place in the 16th century.
NARRATOR: ...the story of The Great Inca Rebellion, right now on NOVA.
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NARRATOR: For 3,000 years, the mountains and coasts of Peru were home to the most advanced civilizations of South America. The Inca Empire was the last of many to rise and fall in Peru, but it was the greatest.
The Inca were the Romans of the New World. Incomparable builders and engineers, they created Machu Picchu, the most sophisticated road system of the Americas, and countless masterpieces of gold. But their real genius was for conquest.
In the 15th century, they used it to conquer the entire Andean region. The ghosts of that fierce Inca Empire still haunt Peru's modern capital, Lima.
Twenty-first century Lima, today, is a teeming city of 9,000,000. But beneath its sprawling shanty towns lie layer upon layer of Peru's ancient dead.
For over 20 years, Peruvian archaeologist and National Geographic grantee Guillermo Cock has been working to unravel the mysteries of these Indian gravesites. Nobody knows more about the ancient burials of Lima.
GUILLERMO COCK (Archeologist): At the beginning of March of 2004, the city was going to open a new highway in the area that we suspected that had a cemetery. We decided to put a trench in, in order to test if it was or wasn't a cemetery.
NARRATOR: The site Guillermo was investigating was an apparently unremarkable hillside in a suburb of Lima called Puruchuco. He set to work with his colleague of many years, archaeologist, Elena Goycochea. Very quickly, their test trench yielded results.
GUILLERMO COCK: The result of the test was about 20 graves in a trench that was two-by-eight meters. That finding led us to conclude that that little ravine was, in fact, a cemetery.
NARRATOR: At first, the Puruchuco graveyard seemed very similar to others Willy and Elena had excavated. Bodies were buried at regular intervals, in a crouched sitting position, facing the rising sun. This is the classic pattern of Inca burials. But before long, strange anomalies began to appear.
GUILLERMO COCK: Very soon, when we were into the excavation, we noticed that there was a number of individuals that they didn't conform to the standard, what we may call the burial pattern.
NARRATOR: In the lower layers of the cemetery, everything seemed to be as Willy would expect in a well-organized Inca graveyard, but on top of these was a layer of bodies buried near the surface which was like nothing he or Elena had ever seen.
ELENA GOYCOCHEA (Archeologist): The body is stretched out this way, facing west. Normally, it should be facing that direction, east. The orientation is all wrong, just like the others.
NARRATOR: The more they uncovered, the more surprises they found. On top of the corpses of the traditional Inca graveyard, bodies had been thrown in chaotically. Instead of the usual careful wrapping of the body with cotton stuffing and woolen fabrics, these had been hastily wrapped in simple cloths called "telas." They were stretched on their side or back; some faced up, some to the west. None were crouched and facing east in the traditional Inca way.
GUILLERMO COCK: It was evident that they didn't follow the burial rituals. They were without the proper offerings.
Now the question was why these individuals had been buried in such an unusual way.
NARRATOR: To someone who knows the Inca world as well as Willy and Elena, this was mystifying. Reverence for the dead was at the core of Inca culture. Properly performed death rituals were crucial to ensuring the rebirth of the dead in the spirit world, hence their burial in a crouched, expectant pose facing the sunrise, symbol of rebirth.
Against this backdrop, the treatment of the bodies at Puruchuco was doubly surprising.
ELENA GOYCOCHEA: It's as if the moment they died, they just wrapped them in a cloth, brought them to the cemetery and stuck them in the ground chaotically, not the usual Inca way.
NARRATOR: When Willy and his team unwrapped the loosely covered skeletons, what they found was even more shocking. Almost all bore marks of extreme violence. Skulls had been crushed, and some showed injuries that had never been seen before in an Inca cemetery, in fact, in any Indian cemetery anywhere in Central or South America.
One skeleton in particular really caught their attention. They called him "Mochito," the severed one, because of his horrific injuries.
MELISSA MURPHY: The left, middle and ring finger on the left hand had perhaps been cut off or twisted off. He's clearly received some sort of blow to the face, a peri-mortem fracture to the left first rib, a pretty bad break to the proximal femur. All of these injuries, together, lead me to believe that this individual died a very violent death.
NARRATOR: Melissa Murphy is a bio-archaeologist working with Willy to interpret Mochito's injuries.
MELISSA MURPHY: This is a very exceptional skeleton for a number of reasons. He is very atypical. He has a series of peri-mortem injuries that I haven't encountered before, in particular, these three quadrangular defects to his cranium.
One of the defects also has a small radiating fracture, hinging fracture that looks like something caught the outer table of this bone.
I've never encountered this. And based on documented cases of other injuries, it seems consistent with metal-edged weaponry, something else, but not something you would see among Inca weapons.
NARRATOR: The Inca had few weapons capable of delivering the clean piercing wounds Melissa sees in Mochito's remains. Their deadliest weapons of war were stone clubs, spears and slings, the type of weaponry used by Inca warriors had been obsolete in Europe for over 2,000 years.
JOHN GUILMARTIN (Military Historian): The Inca army would have been totally beyond the comprehension or historical memory of the Spaniards. It's a "Chalcolithic" army, meaning that the Andeans could smelt gold, silver, copper, but all of their cutting implements, all of their piercing implements, all their weapons were stone.
NARRATOR: The arrival of Pizarro and his conquistadors, in 1532, brought this Inca army and its stone weapons face-to-face with 16th century Europe's most advanced military technology.
It was only 40 years since Christopher Columbus had claimed his first discoveries in the New World for Spain. Since then, indigenous populations of the Americas had been overwhelmed by the relentless Spanish expansion. One reason for that was that the Spanish brought with them two things the Indians had never seen before.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: The Spanish had enormous advantages of mobility. Their horse was perhaps the second largest advantage they had. Their greatest advantage was their possession of steel weapons.
NARRATOR: The strange wounds on the top of Mochito's skull made Willy and his team think of stab wounds delivered from horseback.
Could the bodies in the graveyard be victims of Pizarro's conquistadors? If so, they would be the first ever found.
The injury to another skull seemed to prove the link to the conquistadors in an even more dramatic way.
MELISSA MURPHY: What's especially anomalous about it is that it has a large circular defect on the left parietal that looks suspiciously like a gunshot wound. And it looks like, as the projectile exited the face and exited this area, it came apart and the entire face was fragmented.
What's especially exceptional about this is not only that we have, in fact, the entrance wound and the exit wound that I just showed you, but also that I recovered the plug of bone that actually was in this position on the inside of the skull.
NARRATOR: This could be a momentous discovery. It would be the first documented gunshot wound in the New World.
The primitive but deadly 16th-century guns called "arquebuses" were just one of the many terrifying novelties the Spanish brought with them to South America.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: The Spanish arquebuses of the conquest were no more awkward than European infantry muskets a hundred years later—a bit heavier for their projectile weight—but the Spaniards knew how to use them. They knew how to use them well.
NARRATOR: The combination of guns, steel weapons and cavalry had a devastating effect on native armies. The Inca had no defense against any of them.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: The European response to a cavalry charge had been learned over centuries of exposure to mounted combat. Over the short term, the Inca had no response whatsoever to cavalry.
NARRATOR: And there was yet another deadly cargo brought by the Spanish, which would eventually decimate the Inca population, disease. But no one is sure exactly when the first epidemics arrived.
So Willy's team concentrate their efforts on the more obvious injuries to the skeletons. If the suspected gunshot wound is real, it would be unprecedented. So Melissa needs proof.
She hopes that x-rays might reveal traces of metal around the edges of the wound.
MELISSA MURPHY: Here we are seeing where the exit wound was and we were really expecting to see metal residues—really bright white, as distinct from the bone and the teeth in the film—but we don't. There's nothing in there that suggests that there's lead or metal residues. It looks like no.
NARRATOR: The negative result is a blow. To Melissa and Willy, the wound clearly suggests a gunshot. They just can't prove it. Perhaps the metal traces left by the musket ball were too miniscule for the x-rays to detect.
So Willy decides on a bold course of action. He calls on one of the world's foremost crime labs. It is 4,000 miles away at the University of New Haven in Connecticut.
With cutting edge forensic techniques, if anyplace can get some results from the skeletons of Puruchuco, it is here.
Top forensic scientists Al Harper and Tim Palmbach have examined hundreds of gunshot wounds, a lot fresher than the one in Peru.
Before long, Al and Tim are in Lima. The lure of examining what may be the first gunshot wound in the Americas is irresistible. Willy's lab contains the remains of over 3,000 Inca burials. Work on this astonishing collection of mummies and skeletons has been temporarily abandoned as Mochito and his band take center stage.
Al and Tim immediately focus on what Melissa thought might be the gunshot wound.
ALBERT HARPER: Oh, how interesting. Look at this. It's almost as if there are two separate entrances.
TIM PALMBACH (Forensic Scientist): You almost did have a trajectory line 30, 45 degrees maybe.
ALBERT HARPER: It's hitting at some angle about like that.
TIM PALMBACH: So if we think energy-wise: it's got to be sufficient enough to pop a hole through the cranium, but not so energetic that you bust this up.
I mean, if you take a modern day 14-, 1,500-foot energy impact of a normal handgun you don't get plugs like that. It doesn't fragment there.
ALBERT HARPER: No, it would completely and totally fragment. The little pieces...the bullet simply punches a hole through the bone and it fragments the pieces of bone as it goes through. This isn't the case here.
NARRATOR: The intact plug of bone indicates an impact much less forceful than any modern gunshot. But it might well correspond to the much weaker impact of a 16th-century arquebus. In fact, the bone plug itself carries a concave imprint highly suggestive of a musket ball.
ALBERT HARPER: Remarkable, absolutely remarkable. Could this be a gunshot? It could be.
NARRATOR: To prove it, they'll have to use more sophisticated instruments, starting with a scanning electron microscope or SEM.
TIM PALMBACH: What we want to try to do here is we'll do some scanning electron microscopy, looking at this, and then, if we find some small particulate matter, we can go ahead and we'll hit it with an x-ray. And that will give us the elemental compositions.
NARRATOR: The results go beyond their wildest dreams. The edges of the hole in the skull and the entire surface of the bone plug are impregnated with fragments of iron, a metal sometimes used for Spanish musket balls.
TIM PALMBACH: Standard x-ray procedures failed to see these iron particles because what ultimately we established through the SEM is that these were very small particles that were actually hidden in these small fissures and fractures in the bone.
NARRATOR: Now Tim and Al have an image of what probably happened. As the musket ball punched into the back of the skull and passed through the head, it left iron fragments deep inside the bone which had stayed there for 500 years.
TIM PALMBACH: Honestly, when we were first confronted with the possibility that there was a gunshot wound some 500 years ago, we were skeptical, and as any scientist would do, we sought to disprove that.
Simply, there is nothing that we have found or evaluated that is inconsistent with that having been, indeed, a gunshot wound.
NARRATOR: It's a remarkable discovery—not only the first evidence of a gunshot wound in the Americas, but support for Willy's belief that the bodies from the Puruchuco graveyard could be the first ever forensic remains of the battles of the conquest.
The questions posed by these precious bones are tantalizing. What other stories do they have to tell? Who was Mochito? How did he and his people die?
As forensic science opens a window on the Spanish conquest of Peru, what more will we see through it? Will it confirm what the Spanish wrote in their chronicles, that courage, along with guns and steel swords, gave a tiny band of conquistadors such an advantage they could vanquish thousands.
Spanish chronicles of the conquest underplay one critical fact. When Pizarro and his conquistadors arrived in Peru, the Inca Empire was falling to pieces.
It had been formed only a hundred years earlier when the Inca had spread out from their capital at Cusco to overwhelm the many different Indian chiefdoms of the region. By 1532, many of the empire's over 10 million inhabitants were fed up with Inca rule and all too willing to ally themselves with the Spanish in a bid to break free of Inca domination.
For the newly arrived Spanish, this was a great stroke of luck. Even with their huge technological advantages, they were hardly a formidable fighting force.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: It's a mistake to think of the conquistadors as soldiers. They were not soldiers in the contemporary Spanish sense, let alone the modern American sense. They were adventurers. They were absolutely ruthless, but they weren't soldiers.
NARRATOR: Many of the conquistadors were illiterate, including Francisco Pizarro himself. From peasant stock in rural Spain, most were men of action, not letters. The task of telling the story of the conquest largely fell to scribes and chroniclers. Over the years, a sort of official version of what happened was composed.
Historians and archaeologists have long suspected that in the process, facts were altered and some conveniently forgotten.
GUILLERMO COCK: The chronicles try to justify the conquest. And in order to magnify the glory of the Spaniards, they exaggerate.
NARRATOR: The chronicles go to great lengths to paint a dramatic portrait of Spanish hardships and heroism, but largely ignore the help given by their Indian allies. They recount a series of dramatic confrontations in which Pizarro's tiny band confront vast Inca armies and, against all odds, triumph.
The most remarkable of these takes place only weeks after the Spanish arrive. At Cajamarca in northern Peru, they come upon the troops of the Inca king, Atahualpa, who are celebrating a successful military campaign. The Inca are not prepared for battle. The Spanish take them by surprise and massacre them. In the process, they take the king hostage.
Pizarro demands a huge ransom of gold for Atahualpa. Once it is paid, he executes him anyway.
With the Inca world in shock, Pizarro pushes on to the capital, Cusco, which quickly falls to the Spanish.Within a matter of months, the Inca Empire is theirs.
It takes four years for armed Inca resistance to materialize. In 1536, Inca armies mobilize and throw themselves at the conquistadors both in Cusco and the newly founded Spanish city of Lima. The great Inca Rebellion has begun.
According to the chronicles, on August 10th, 1536, Francisco Pizzaro is in Lima. He watches in terror as a vast Indian army sweeps across the coastal plain.
"God save us from the fury of the Indians," is all he can say.
It was during the siege of Lima that followed that Mochito and his people probably lost their lives.
The time layering, or "stratigraphy," of the cemetery at Puruchuco tells Willy that Mochito's remains are from the very first years of the conquest.
GUILLERMO COCK: The only event that could explain the injuries and the stratigraphic position of this was the siege of Lima.
NARRATOR: In August 1536, the city of Lima is only 18 months old. Its few adobe houses are arranged in a grid system around a central square.
According to the chronicles, on the day of the battle, a vast army led by the great Inca general, Quiso Yupanqui, closes in on Lima. They estimate it in the tens of thousands. Quiso is carried on a litter surrounded by his captains.
Pizarro has only a few hundred troops. With the odds stacked against him, he decides to gamble everything on one desperate cavalry charge. The Spanish always try to kill leaders first because they know this devastates enemy morale. So the cavalry hacks its way through the Inca troops towards Quiso and his captains.
In front of the Spanish charge, the captains fall back, exposing Quiso. He is killed in an instant. The Inca army retreats in disarray.
In the picture painted by the chronicles, a handful of Spaniards have once again heroically defeated a huge Indian army. Lima is saved. But is that really what happened?
Now, for the first time, we will be able to re-examine the Spanish version of events.
Willy and Elena believe Mochito and his people were part of the Inca force that confronted Pizarro on that fateful day in August, 1536.
GUILLERMO COCK: The finding of this individual is very important, because we can confront the descriptions contained in the European documents with material evidence, with the reality, a sort of forensic work, in order to prove or disprove those narrations.
NARRATOR: Of all the burials found at Puruchuco, Mochito's stands out. His head had been wrapped in blue cloth. He was in the center of the cemetery.
The way he was buried make Willy and Elena sure Mochito had special status. He was a leader.
As Tim and Al work on Mochito's remains, they discover that many of his injuries seem consistent with the classic account of the siege of Lima. Perhaps he was one of the captains, close to the Inca general, who were cut down by Pizarro's cavalry charge. This, in itself, might explain his terrible injuries.
ALBERT HARPER: The mandible has been fractured with an incredible amount of force. Normally, the chin bone is very strong and is very resistant, but in this one it's been snapped with a force coming down from the outside, forcing it apart, breaking off this little piece of bone that's missing. Who knows where that went. So, some terrible thing has happened there.
And then, in examining the vertebrae, we find that the thoracic vertebrae are all intact, but we look at the ribs...part of the rib has been...the first rib has been snapped off. And we see additional damage to the inside of the sternum or the breastbone where it's been snapped, not in one, but in two, but in three different places.
An amazing amount of force has been applied to the outside of this person's body, something very large and very heavy, perhaps a great big rock or even a horse.
NARRATOR: Sharp piercing wounds to the skull and crushing wounds to the torso are exactly what you would expect in somebody killed in a cavalry charge. But when Al and Tim come to examine the remains of the people who died with Mochito, they seem to tell a very different story.
ALBERT HARPER: It's very unusual to see this kind of pattern. So many of them have had severe, blunt force trauma...broken the skull completely apart. You get the occipital bone broken, plus you get injuries to the face and orbits, a lot of it to the left side as if a blow is coming in to the right.
NARRATOR: While a few of the death injuries look like they were dealt by Spanish steel, the great majority point to a very different type of weapon.
ALBERT HARPER: It's an object that's approximately two to three centimeters in diameter, and it takes out the left zygomatic arch, breaks the face, breaks the back of the skull, breaks the occipital bone all in one piece. Whatever happened to this person was an extremely violent death.
NARRATOR: And the shattered skulls hold yet another shocking surprise: a tiny bone beneath the ear indicates that some are women.
ALBERT HARPER: Two or three appear to be female—you can tell by the small mastoid processes—and they've got signs of injury, too.
NARRATOR: Is this evidence that women fought alongside Mochito and his men? If so, like many of the Puruchuco finds, it would be unprecedented.
To look for the weapons that could have caused these blunt force skull injuries, Al and Tim head for the Gold Museum of Lima. It has the largest collection of historic weapons in Peru, both Spanish and Inca.
The steel weapons of the Spanish would produce either sharp piercing injuries or crushing injuries with clean edges. They would not create the sort of blunt force traumas Al and Tim have been examining.
What sort of weapon could have created those? Tim and Al go on to look at the Inca weapons.
ALBERT HARPER: Tim, look at this thing. That's really heavy. Can you imagine what would happen if that got swung at somebody?
TIM PALMBACH: Isn't that about the same kind of configuration as some of the facial and side...the head injuries you were looking at?
ALBERT HARPER: Sure, it's just about the right size, and certainly if that...
TIM PALMBACH: So that would punch the skull in more than just a flat kind of fracture.
ALBERT HARPER: Absolutely. It would fracture all the fine bones of the face.
TIM PALMBACH: Well, that might be why a lot of the skulls, you weren't finding the small bones, because they were probably so busted up that they disarticulated, right?
ALBERT HARPER: Absolutely. That's an incredibly lethal weapon.
NARRATOR: The possibility that the Indians found in the Puruchuco cemetery were killed by stone clubs points to a stunning conclusion: most were killed not by the Spanish, but by other Indians.
Of 70 individuals in the Puruchuco cemetery, only three show clear signs of being killed by Spanish weapons. This directly challenges the account in the chronicles.
So what really happened at the siege of Lima?
Willy knows that to get to the bottom of this mystery, he needs the collaboration of other disciplines, not just forensic scientists, but historians, too.
EFRAIN TRELLES: For 500 years, we have been told a handful of Spaniards and their irons and their horses were able to take an entire empire. Since we historians have gone beyond the chronicles in the last three decades, this official version can be challenged.
NARRATOR: Historian Efrain Trelles has been studying the historical records of the early Spanish colony in Peru. They are housed in places like this, the Archive of the Franciscans at the Convent of San Francisco de Lima.
Efrain's attention was drawn to a long-forgotten court case, which took place in Lima many years after the siege. It sheds dramatic new light on the events of August 1536.
EFRAIN TRELLES: Years after the rebellion, the heirs of Pizarro were arguing with the crown. And as part of their trial, they contended that the costs of defending Lima from the siege had had a heavy impact on the Pizarro estate and that they had to be rewarded for that.
NARRATOR: The crown disagreed. They brought Indians in who were present at the siege. The Indians testified that the fighting involved small skirmishes, but no major battle.
EFRAIN TRELLES: We have references of fighting during the siege, but mostly Indians against Indians.
NARRATOR: Witnesses also claimed that the Inca army was in the thousands, not tens of thousands, that there was no heroic cavalry charge by Pizarro, and that Spaniards who did fight were protected by large numbers of Indians who were fighting alongside them.
EFRAIN TRELLES: So this leads me to think and believe that the great siege must have taken place in a very different manner than we have been told.
NARRATOR: Willy's discovery that most of Mochito's warriors were killed by other Indians supports the version of events that emerged at the trial. It also provides the first scientific evidence for what historians have long suspected, but could never prove: that the role of the Indian allies, consistently downplayed by the chronicles, was critical to the success of the conquest.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: It's very clear, when you look at the way the conquest went down, that Pizarro's allies were very important to his ultimate victory, not simply in the fighting line, but for logistical support. They were enormously important.
It's very clear that their role in the conquest has been minimized.
NARRATOR: No one has found more proof of the importance of Indian allies to the Spanish than Maria Rostworowski. At 91, she is probably the most respected living historian of the Andes.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI (Historian): The Spanish were massively supported by their Indian allies. This fact, overlooked by the chronicles, completely changes our vision of the conquest. Without it, the story is absurd.
NARRATOR: Maria has discovered documents that reveal the true story of the siege of Lima. Found in the Archives of the Indies in Seville, Spain, they show that Pizarro's survival at Lima depended not on military prowess, but on an alliance with a powerful chiefdom in the mountain province of Huaylas.
When Francisco Pizarro arrived in Peru, he was a single man of 54. Eager to create an alliance with him, the nobility of Huaylas offered him a young girl as wife.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI: She was called Quispe Sisa and she became Pizarro's concubine after baptism.
It's a curious fact that the Spanish had all the relations they wanted with Andean women, but only after they were baptized.
NARRATOR: Pizarro's young concubine, Quispe Sisa, is with him in Lima when the Indian armies lay siege to the city in August 1536. She is at the center of what really happens at the siege of Lima.
As the small Inca army approaches Lima, Pizarro does indeed send out a cavalry charge to fend it off. They follow the Inca warriors into a dry riverbed outside the city where the Spanish horses start to break their ankles on the huge stones.
Having achieved nothing, the cavalry retreats.
Soon after, the Inca army once again advances on the city.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI: And the Inca army was actually entering the streets of Lima when suddenly they retreated. And the Spanish said, "How stupid! They walk away when they are on our doorstep."
What had happened? I found, in the Archive of the Indies, a document saying that Pizarro's young concubine sent runners with messages to her mother in Huaylas asking for help. She asked for an army, and her mother sent her one.
NARRATOR: Quispe Sisa's mother was a chief in her own right. As soon as she received news that her daughter was surrounded in Lima, she dispatched a large army to relieve the city.
Lima was saved, not by conquistador heroics, but by the arrival of the army sent by the mother of Pizarro's young concubine.
As the Indians from Huaylas descend on Lima, the Inca army sees that its situation is suddenly hopeless. The balance has tipped in favor of the Spanish. The Inca army retreats in disarray.
They are pursued by a few Spaniards, accompanied and protected by large groups of warriors from Huaylas. The fighting of the siege of Lima takes place in small skirmishes around the city.
It was probably in one such skirmish that Mochito and his people met their deaths at the hands of the Spaniards and their Indian allies.
Now, finally, we can tell the story of that last day of their lives.
We don't know Mochito's real name, but from the way he was buried, we know he was a leader and he was young.
MELISSA MURPHY: These clavicles, they aren't fused yet, so that's going to be...put him around...somewhere in the range of 20s, in the early 20s, late teens, maybe 18 to 22.
NARRATOR: Typically, he would have had at least one wife and children. He may have known nothing of the upcoming battle until Inca emissaries came to Puruchuco demanding his support for their fight against the Spanish.
On the morning of the attack, he would have set out from Puruchuco to cover the five miles to the new Spanish settlement at Lima. He and his fellow warriors would have been armed with the traditional Inca weapons: stone clubs, bolas and spears.
They were accompanied by their women, not as warriors, but probably as carriers of food and water for the day's fighting.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI: Don't forget that the viruses might have already arrived and decimated the indigenous population. Since they had lost so many warriors, it was probably women who carried the supplies.
NARRATOR: Mochito and his people were part of the Inca army that tried to enter Lima and was forced to retreat by the arrival of the army from Huaylas.
One likely scenario is that as they tried to make it back to Puruchuco, they were hunted down by a small band of Spaniards with their many Indian allies. Mochito's people were clearly outnumbered.
Their deaths came with savage brutality.
MELISSA MURPHY: So this is another individual who has a series of blunt force injuries, peri-mortem injuries, to the left side of the cranium.
NARRATOR: One warrior was killed like no other, shot in the head by a Spanish arquebus, the first recorded gunshot victim in the New World.
TIM PALMBACH: It is very clear that everything that we've evaluated is consistent with, indeed, this being a gunshot wound.
NARRATOR: No one was spared the slaughter, not even the women.
ALBERT HARPER: This is a young woman, and she's been hit very hard.
NARRATOR: As a leader, Mochito would have been attacked with special ferocity.
MELISSA MURPHY: He's missing his face, and there were no facial fragments recovered.
NARRATOR: The bones of his limbs and torso were smashed by club blows and probably the hooves of a Spanish horse.
ALBERT HARPER: The damage extends all the way up to the first rib, which is also then snapped.
NARRATOR: If he was not dead already, the three puncture wounds to his head would certainly have killed him.
ALBERT HARPER: When we have a chance to look at the CAT scans where we can actually peer inside the skull, we can see that the inner layer of the skull is punched out in all three cases.
That much force pushing into the skull would have caused death.
NARRATOR: Perhaps in a final coup de grace, Mochito died as a Spanish lance stabbed him three times in the back of his skull.
Some time later, the people of Puruchuco came to gather their dead. Perhaps a day or more had passed before they dared venture out. Rigor mortis had already set in. This might explain the unusual sprawled postures in their graves.
With war parties still in the area, there was no time for proper death rituals. Mochito and the people who died with him were hastily buried in their clan cemetery.
From their remains, the work of archaeologists, scientists and historians has uncovered a long hidden truth.
EFRAIN TRELLES: The conquest of Peru was a matter of Indians fighting Indians. Indians took Cusco, Indians defended Cusco; Indians attacked Lima, Indians defended Lima.
Now we have solid evidence.
NARRATOR: Why was the massive participation of Indian armies in the Spanish conquest of Peru left out of the chronicles?
JOHN GUILMARTIN: Very straightforward: the Spanish were indebted to their allies; they didn't want to remember their debts.
NARRATOR: To gain their support, the conquistadors promised their Indian allies the independence and influence they had been denied by the Inca. After the conquest, the promises were all conveniently forgotten.
EFRAIN TRELLES: There has been a political interest to erase from the historical landscape all the indigenous elements that helped Pizarro.
NARRATOR: The story of the Spanish alliances with the Andean Indians who fought their battles for them is the great untold story of the conquest. By a strange twist of fate, it is their victims, Mochito and the people who died with him at the siege of Lima, whose bones have borne witness to this long forgotten truth.
On NOVA's Great Inca Rebellion Web site, see in detail how a Spanish conquistador and an Inca warrior were outfitted for battle. Find it on PBS.org.
Educators and other educational institutions can order this or other NOVA programs, for $19.95 plus shipping and handling. Call WGBH Boston Video at 1-800-255-9424.
MELISSA MURPHY (Biological Anthropologist): This person died a very violent death.
NARRATOR: These skeletons may revolutionize our understanding of one of the pivotal events of world history, the Spanish conquest of the Inca.
For 500 years, we have had to rely on chronicles written by the Spanish conquistadors to understand what happened. Those chronicles tell us how, in 1532, Francisco Pizarro arrived at the frontiers of the Inca Empire with fewer than 200 men. Ever since, historians have puzzled at the events that followed.
As Inca messengers spread news of the tiny invasion around the Empire, why didn't the huge Inca armies mobilize? How could a handful of Spanish adventurers bring the greatest indigenous civilization of South America to its knees?
Was it the vast superiority of the Spanish weapons? Was it European diseases to which the Inca had no resistance? Or was it something else?
These skeletons may hold the answers. For the first time, science can open a window on the real events of the conquest of Peru. The discoveries are amazing.
ALBERT HARPER (Forensic Scientist): I think we're looking at the first gunshot wound in the New World.
NARRATOR: A story of the conquest never told before, a story of secret alliances and betrayal...
EFRAIN TRELLES (Historian): ...a great cover up that took place in the 16th century.
NARRATOR: ...the story of The Great Inca Rebellion, right now on NOVA.
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NARRATOR: For 3,000 years, the mountains and coasts of Peru were home to the most advanced civilizations of South America. The Inca Empire was the last of many to rise and fall in Peru, but it was the greatest.
The Inca were the Romans of the New World. Incomparable builders and engineers, they created Machu Picchu, the most sophisticated road system of the Americas, and countless masterpieces of gold. But their real genius was for conquest.
In the 15th century, they used it to conquer the entire Andean region. The ghosts of that fierce Inca Empire still haunt Peru's modern capital, Lima.
Twenty-first century Lima, today, is a teeming city of 9,000,000. But beneath its sprawling shanty towns lie layer upon layer of Peru's ancient dead.
For over 20 years, Peruvian archaeologist and National Geographic grantee Guillermo Cock has been working to unravel the mysteries of these Indian gravesites. Nobody knows more about the ancient burials of Lima.
GUILLERMO COCK (Archeologist): At the beginning of March of 2004, the city was going to open a new highway in the area that we suspected that had a cemetery. We decided to put a trench in, in order to test if it was or wasn't a cemetery.
NARRATOR: The site Guillermo was investigating was an apparently unremarkable hillside in a suburb of Lima called Puruchuco. He set to work with his colleague of many years, archaeologist, Elena Goycochea. Very quickly, their test trench yielded results.
GUILLERMO COCK: The result of the test was about 20 graves in a trench that was two-by-eight meters. That finding led us to conclude that that little ravine was, in fact, a cemetery.
NARRATOR: At first, the Puruchuco graveyard seemed very similar to others Willy and Elena had excavated. Bodies were buried at regular intervals, in a crouched sitting position, facing the rising sun. This is the classic pattern of Inca burials. But before long, strange anomalies began to appear.
GUILLERMO COCK: Very soon, when we were into the excavation, we noticed that there was a number of individuals that they didn't conform to the standard, what we may call the burial pattern.
NARRATOR: In the lower layers of the cemetery, everything seemed to be as Willy would expect in a well-organized Inca graveyard, but on top of these was a layer of bodies buried near the surface which was like nothing he or Elena had ever seen.
ELENA GOYCOCHEA (Archeologist): The body is stretched out this way, facing west. Normally, it should be facing that direction, east. The orientation is all wrong, just like the others.
NARRATOR: The more they uncovered, the more surprises they found. On top of the corpses of the traditional Inca graveyard, bodies had been thrown in chaotically. Instead of the usual careful wrapping of the body with cotton stuffing and woolen fabrics, these had been hastily wrapped in simple cloths called "telas." They were stretched on their side or back; some faced up, some to the west. None were crouched and facing east in the traditional Inca way.
GUILLERMO COCK: It was evident that they didn't follow the burial rituals. They were without the proper offerings.
Now the question was why these individuals had been buried in such an unusual way.
NARRATOR: To someone who knows the Inca world as well as Willy and Elena, this was mystifying. Reverence for the dead was at the core of Inca culture. Properly performed death rituals were crucial to ensuring the rebirth of the dead in the spirit world, hence their burial in a crouched, expectant pose facing the sunrise, symbol of rebirth.
Against this backdrop, the treatment of the bodies at Puruchuco was doubly surprising.
ELENA GOYCOCHEA: It's as if the moment they died, they just wrapped them in a cloth, brought them to the cemetery and stuck them in the ground chaotically, not the usual Inca way.
NARRATOR: When Willy and his team unwrapped the loosely covered skeletons, what they found was even more shocking. Almost all bore marks of extreme violence. Skulls had been crushed, and some showed injuries that had never been seen before in an Inca cemetery, in fact, in any Indian cemetery anywhere in Central or South America.
One skeleton in particular really caught their attention. They called him "Mochito," the severed one, because of his horrific injuries.
MELISSA MURPHY: The left, middle and ring finger on the left hand had perhaps been cut off or twisted off. He's clearly received some sort of blow to the face, a peri-mortem fracture to the left first rib, a pretty bad break to the proximal femur. All of these injuries, together, lead me to believe that this individual died a very violent death.
NARRATOR: Melissa Murphy is a bio-archaeologist working with Willy to interpret Mochito's injuries.
MELISSA MURPHY: This is a very exceptional skeleton for a number of reasons. He is very atypical. He has a series of peri-mortem injuries that I haven't encountered before, in particular, these three quadrangular defects to his cranium.
One of the defects also has a small radiating fracture, hinging fracture that looks like something caught the outer table of this bone.
I've never encountered this. And based on documented cases of other injuries, it seems consistent with metal-edged weaponry, something else, but not something you would see among Inca weapons.
NARRATOR: The Inca had few weapons capable of delivering the clean piercing wounds Melissa sees in Mochito's remains. Their deadliest weapons of war were stone clubs, spears and slings, the type of weaponry used by Inca warriors had been obsolete in Europe for over 2,000 years.
JOHN GUILMARTIN (Military Historian): The Inca army would have been totally beyond the comprehension or historical memory of the Spaniards. It's a "Chalcolithic" army, meaning that the Andeans could smelt gold, silver, copper, but all of their cutting implements, all of their piercing implements, all their weapons were stone.
NARRATOR: The arrival of Pizarro and his conquistadors, in 1532, brought this Inca army and its stone weapons face-to-face with 16th century Europe's most advanced military technology.
It was only 40 years since Christopher Columbus had claimed his first discoveries in the New World for Spain. Since then, indigenous populations of the Americas had been overwhelmed by the relentless Spanish expansion. One reason for that was that the Spanish brought with them two things the Indians had never seen before.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: The Spanish had enormous advantages of mobility. Their horse was perhaps the second largest advantage they had. Their greatest advantage was their possession of steel weapons.
NARRATOR: The strange wounds on the top of Mochito's skull made Willy and his team think of stab wounds delivered from horseback.
Could the bodies in the graveyard be victims of Pizarro's conquistadors? If so, they would be the first ever found.
The injury to another skull seemed to prove the link to the conquistadors in an even more dramatic way.
MELISSA MURPHY: What's especially anomalous about it is that it has a large circular defect on the left parietal that looks suspiciously like a gunshot wound. And it looks like, as the projectile exited the face and exited this area, it came apart and the entire face was fragmented.
What's especially exceptional about this is not only that we have, in fact, the entrance wound and the exit wound that I just showed you, but also that I recovered the plug of bone that actually was in this position on the inside of the skull.
NARRATOR: This could be a momentous discovery. It would be the first documented gunshot wound in the New World.
The primitive but deadly 16th-century guns called "arquebuses" were just one of the many terrifying novelties the Spanish brought with them to South America.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: The Spanish arquebuses of the conquest were no more awkward than European infantry muskets a hundred years later—a bit heavier for their projectile weight—but the Spaniards knew how to use them. They knew how to use them well.
NARRATOR: The combination of guns, steel weapons and cavalry had a devastating effect on native armies. The Inca had no defense against any of them.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: The European response to a cavalry charge had been learned over centuries of exposure to mounted combat. Over the short term, the Inca had no response whatsoever to cavalry.
NARRATOR: And there was yet another deadly cargo brought by the Spanish, which would eventually decimate the Inca population, disease. But no one is sure exactly when the first epidemics arrived.
So Willy's team concentrate their efforts on the more obvious injuries to the skeletons. If the suspected gunshot wound is real, it would be unprecedented. So Melissa needs proof.
She hopes that x-rays might reveal traces of metal around the edges of the wound.
MELISSA MURPHY: Here we are seeing where the exit wound was and we were really expecting to see metal residues—really bright white, as distinct from the bone and the teeth in the film—but we don't. There's nothing in there that suggests that there's lead or metal residues. It looks like no.
NARRATOR: The negative result is a blow. To Melissa and Willy, the wound clearly suggests a gunshot. They just can't prove it. Perhaps the metal traces left by the musket ball were too miniscule for the x-rays to detect.
So Willy decides on a bold course of action. He calls on one of the world's foremost crime labs. It is 4,000 miles away at the University of New Haven in Connecticut.
With cutting edge forensic techniques, if anyplace can get some results from the skeletons of Puruchuco, it is here.
Top forensic scientists Al Harper and Tim Palmbach have examined hundreds of gunshot wounds, a lot fresher than the one in Peru.
Before long, Al and Tim are in Lima. The lure of examining what may be the first gunshot wound in the Americas is irresistible. Willy's lab contains the remains of over 3,000 Inca burials. Work on this astonishing collection of mummies and skeletons has been temporarily abandoned as Mochito and his band take center stage.
Al and Tim immediately focus on what Melissa thought might be the gunshot wound.
ALBERT HARPER: Oh, how interesting. Look at this. It's almost as if there are two separate entrances.
TIM PALMBACH (Forensic Scientist): You almost did have a trajectory line 30, 45 degrees maybe.
ALBERT HARPER: It's hitting at some angle about like that.
TIM PALMBACH: So if we think energy-wise: it's got to be sufficient enough to pop a hole through the cranium, but not so energetic that you bust this up.
I mean, if you take a modern day 14-, 1,500-foot energy impact of a normal handgun you don't get plugs like that. It doesn't fragment there.
ALBERT HARPER: No, it would completely and totally fragment. The little pieces...the bullet simply punches a hole through the bone and it fragments the pieces of bone as it goes through. This isn't the case here.
NARRATOR: The intact plug of bone indicates an impact much less forceful than any modern gunshot. But it might well correspond to the much weaker impact of a 16th-century arquebus. In fact, the bone plug itself carries a concave imprint highly suggestive of a musket ball.
ALBERT HARPER: Remarkable, absolutely remarkable. Could this be a gunshot? It could be.
NARRATOR: To prove it, they'll have to use more sophisticated instruments, starting with a scanning electron microscope or SEM.
TIM PALMBACH: What we want to try to do here is we'll do some scanning electron microscopy, looking at this, and then, if we find some small particulate matter, we can go ahead and we'll hit it with an x-ray. And that will give us the elemental compositions.
NARRATOR: The results go beyond their wildest dreams. The edges of the hole in the skull and the entire surface of the bone plug are impregnated with fragments of iron, a metal sometimes used for Spanish musket balls.
TIM PALMBACH: Standard x-ray procedures failed to see these iron particles because what ultimately we established through the SEM is that these were very small particles that were actually hidden in these small fissures and fractures in the bone.
NARRATOR: Now Tim and Al have an image of what probably happened. As the musket ball punched into the back of the skull and passed through the head, it left iron fragments deep inside the bone which had stayed there for 500 years.
TIM PALMBACH: Honestly, when we were first confronted with the possibility that there was a gunshot wound some 500 years ago, we were skeptical, and as any scientist would do, we sought to disprove that.
Simply, there is nothing that we have found or evaluated that is inconsistent with that having been, indeed, a gunshot wound.
NARRATOR: It's a remarkable discovery—not only the first evidence of a gunshot wound in the Americas, but support for Willy's belief that the bodies from the Puruchuco graveyard could be the first ever forensic remains of the battles of the conquest.
The questions posed by these precious bones are tantalizing. What other stories do they have to tell? Who was Mochito? How did he and his people die?
As forensic science opens a window on the Spanish conquest of Peru, what more will we see through it? Will it confirm what the Spanish wrote in their chronicles, that courage, along with guns and steel swords, gave a tiny band of conquistadors such an advantage they could vanquish thousands.
Spanish chronicles of the conquest underplay one critical fact. When Pizarro and his conquistadors arrived in Peru, the Inca Empire was falling to pieces.
It had been formed only a hundred years earlier when the Inca had spread out from their capital at Cusco to overwhelm the many different Indian chiefdoms of the region. By 1532, many of the empire's over 10 million inhabitants were fed up with Inca rule and all too willing to ally themselves with the Spanish in a bid to break free of Inca domination.
For the newly arrived Spanish, this was a great stroke of luck. Even with their huge technological advantages, they were hardly a formidable fighting force.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: It's a mistake to think of the conquistadors as soldiers. They were not soldiers in the contemporary Spanish sense, let alone the modern American sense. They were adventurers. They were absolutely ruthless, but they weren't soldiers.
NARRATOR: Many of the conquistadors were illiterate, including Francisco Pizarro himself. From peasant stock in rural Spain, most were men of action, not letters. The task of telling the story of the conquest largely fell to scribes and chroniclers. Over the years, a sort of official version of what happened was composed.
Historians and archaeologists have long suspected that in the process, facts were altered and some conveniently forgotten.
GUILLERMO COCK: The chronicles try to justify the conquest. And in order to magnify the glory of the Spaniards, they exaggerate.
NARRATOR: The chronicles go to great lengths to paint a dramatic portrait of Spanish hardships and heroism, but largely ignore the help given by their Indian allies. They recount a series of dramatic confrontations in which Pizarro's tiny band confront vast Inca armies and, against all odds, triumph.
The most remarkable of these takes place only weeks after the Spanish arrive. At Cajamarca in northern Peru, they come upon the troops of the Inca king, Atahualpa, who are celebrating a successful military campaign. The Inca are not prepared for battle. The Spanish take them by surprise and massacre them. In the process, they take the king hostage.
Pizarro demands a huge ransom of gold for Atahualpa. Once it is paid, he executes him anyway.
With the Inca world in shock, Pizarro pushes on to the capital, Cusco, which quickly falls to the Spanish.Within a matter of months, the Inca Empire is theirs.
It takes four years for armed Inca resistance to materialize. In 1536, Inca armies mobilize and throw themselves at the conquistadors both in Cusco and the newly founded Spanish city of Lima. The great Inca Rebellion has begun.
According to the chronicles, on August 10th, 1536, Francisco Pizzaro is in Lima. He watches in terror as a vast Indian army sweeps across the coastal plain.
"God save us from the fury of the Indians," is all he can say.
It was during the siege of Lima that followed that Mochito and his people probably lost their lives.
The time layering, or "stratigraphy," of the cemetery at Puruchuco tells Willy that Mochito's remains are from the very first years of the conquest.
GUILLERMO COCK: The only event that could explain the injuries and the stratigraphic position of this was the siege of Lima.
NARRATOR: In August 1536, the city of Lima is only 18 months old. Its few adobe houses are arranged in a grid system around a central square.
According to the chronicles, on the day of the battle, a vast army led by the great Inca general, Quiso Yupanqui, closes in on Lima. They estimate it in the tens of thousands. Quiso is carried on a litter surrounded by his captains.
Pizarro has only a few hundred troops. With the odds stacked against him, he decides to gamble everything on one desperate cavalry charge. The Spanish always try to kill leaders first because they know this devastates enemy morale. So the cavalry hacks its way through the Inca troops towards Quiso and his captains.
In front of the Spanish charge, the captains fall back, exposing Quiso. He is killed in an instant. The Inca army retreats in disarray.
In the picture painted by the chronicles, a handful of Spaniards have once again heroically defeated a huge Indian army. Lima is saved. But is that really what happened?
Now, for the first time, we will be able to re-examine the Spanish version of events.
Willy and Elena believe Mochito and his people were part of the Inca force that confronted Pizarro on that fateful day in August, 1536.
GUILLERMO COCK: The finding of this individual is very important, because we can confront the descriptions contained in the European documents with material evidence, with the reality, a sort of forensic work, in order to prove or disprove those narrations.
NARRATOR: Of all the burials found at Puruchuco, Mochito's stands out. His head had been wrapped in blue cloth. He was in the center of the cemetery.
The way he was buried make Willy and Elena sure Mochito had special status. He was a leader.
As Tim and Al work on Mochito's remains, they discover that many of his injuries seem consistent with the classic account of the siege of Lima. Perhaps he was one of the captains, close to the Inca general, who were cut down by Pizarro's cavalry charge. This, in itself, might explain his terrible injuries.
ALBERT HARPER: The mandible has been fractured with an incredible amount of force. Normally, the chin bone is very strong and is very resistant, but in this one it's been snapped with a force coming down from the outside, forcing it apart, breaking off this little piece of bone that's missing. Who knows where that went. So, some terrible thing has happened there.
And then, in examining the vertebrae, we find that the thoracic vertebrae are all intact, but we look at the ribs...part of the rib has been...the first rib has been snapped off. And we see additional damage to the inside of the sternum or the breastbone where it's been snapped, not in one, but in two, but in three different places.
An amazing amount of force has been applied to the outside of this person's body, something very large and very heavy, perhaps a great big rock or even a horse.
NARRATOR: Sharp piercing wounds to the skull and crushing wounds to the torso are exactly what you would expect in somebody killed in a cavalry charge. But when Al and Tim come to examine the remains of the people who died with Mochito, they seem to tell a very different story.
ALBERT HARPER: It's very unusual to see this kind of pattern. So many of them have had severe, blunt force trauma...broken the skull completely apart. You get the occipital bone broken, plus you get injuries to the face and orbits, a lot of it to the left side as if a blow is coming in to the right.
NARRATOR: While a few of the death injuries look like they were dealt by Spanish steel, the great majority point to a very different type of weapon.
ALBERT HARPER: It's an object that's approximately two to three centimeters in diameter, and it takes out the left zygomatic arch, breaks the face, breaks the back of the skull, breaks the occipital bone all in one piece. Whatever happened to this person was an extremely violent death.
NARRATOR: And the shattered skulls hold yet another shocking surprise: a tiny bone beneath the ear indicates that some are women.
ALBERT HARPER: Two or three appear to be female—you can tell by the small mastoid processes—and they've got signs of injury, too.
NARRATOR: Is this evidence that women fought alongside Mochito and his men? If so, like many of the Puruchuco finds, it would be unprecedented.
To look for the weapons that could have caused these blunt force skull injuries, Al and Tim head for the Gold Museum of Lima. It has the largest collection of historic weapons in Peru, both Spanish and Inca.
The steel weapons of the Spanish would produce either sharp piercing injuries or crushing injuries with clean edges. They would not create the sort of blunt force traumas Al and Tim have been examining.
What sort of weapon could have created those? Tim and Al go on to look at the Inca weapons.
ALBERT HARPER: Tim, look at this thing. That's really heavy. Can you imagine what would happen if that got swung at somebody?
TIM PALMBACH: Isn't that about the same kind of configuration as some of the facial and side...the head injuries you were looking at?
ALBERT HARPER: Sure, it's just about the right size, and certainly if that...
TIM PALMBACH: So that would punch the skull in more than just a flat kind of fracture.
ALBERT HARPER: Absolutely. It would fracture all the fine bones of the face.
TIM PALMBACH: Well, that might be why a lot of the skulls, you weren't finding the small bones, because they were probably so busted up that they disarticulated, right?
ALBERT HARPER: Absolutely. That's an incredibly lethal weapon.
NARRATOR: The possibility that the Indians found in the Puruchuco cemetery were killed by stone clubs points to a stunning conclusion: most were killed not by the Spanish, but by other Indians.
Of 70 individuals in the Puruchuco cemetery, only three show clear signs of being killed by Spanish weapons. This directly challenges the account in the chronicles.
So what really happened at the siege of Lima?
Willy knows that to get to the bottom of this mystery, he needs the collaboration of other disciplines, not just forensic scientists, but historians, too.
EFRAIN TRELLES: For 500 years, we have been told a handful of Spaniards and their irons and their horses were able to take an entire empire. Since we historians have gone beyond the chronicles in the last three decades, this official version can be challenged.
NARRATOR: Historian Efrain Trelles has been studying the historical records of the early Spanish colony in Peru. They are housed in places like this, the Archive of the Franciscans at the Convent of San Francisco de Lima.
Efrain's attention was drawn to a long-forgotten court case, which took place in Lima many years after the siege. It sheds dramatic new light on the events of August 1536.
EFRAIN TRELLES: Years after the rebellion, the heirs of Pizarro were arguing with the crown. And as part of their trial, they contended that the costs of defending Lima from the siege had had a heavy impact on the Pizarro estate and that they had to be rewarded for that.
NARRATOR: The crown disagreed. They brought Indians in who were present at the siege. The Indians testified that the fighting involved small skirmishes, but no major battle.
EFRAIN TRELLES: We have references of fighting during the siege, but mostly Indians against Indians.
NARRATOR: Witnesses also claimed that the Inca army was in the thousands, not tens of thousands, that there was no heroic cavalry charge by Pizarro, and that Spaniards who did fight were protected by large numbers of Indians who were fighting alongside them.
EFRAIN TRELLES: So this leads me to think and believe that the great siege must have taken place in a very different manner than we have been told.
NARRATOR: Willy's discovery that most of Mochito's warriors were killed by other Indians supports the version of events that emerged at the trial. It also provides the first scientific evidence for what historians have long suspected, but could never prove: that the role of the Indian allies, consistently downplayed by the chronicles, was critical to the success of the conquest.
JOHN GUILMARTIN: It's very clear, when you look at the way the conquest went down, that Pizarro's allies were very important to his ultimate victory, not simply in the fighting line, but for logistical support. They were enormously important.
It's very clear that their role in the conquest has been minimized.
NARRATOR: No one has found more proof of the importance of Indian allies to the Spanish than Maria Rostworowski. At 91, she is probably the most respected living historian of the Andes.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI (Historian): The Spanish were massively supported by their Indian allies. This fact, overlooked by the chronicles, completely changes our vision of the conquest. Without it, the story is absurd.
NARRATOR: Maria has discovered documents that reveal the true story of the siege of Lima. Found in the Archives of the Indies in Seville, Spain, they show that Pizarro's survival at Lima depended not on military prowess, but on an alliance with a powerful chiefdom in the mountain province of Huaylas.
When Francisco Pizarro arrived in Peru, he was a single man of 54. Eager to create an alliance with him, the nobility of Huaylas offered him a young girl as wife.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI: She was called Quispe Sisa and she became Pizarro's concubine after baptism.
It's a curious fact that the Spanish had all the relations they wanted with Andean women, but only after they were baptized.
NARRATOR: Pizarro's young concubine, Quispe Sisa, is with him in Lima when the Indian armies lay siege to the city in August 1536. She is at the center of what really happens at the siege of Lima.
As the small Inca army approaches Lima, Pizarro does indeed send out a cavalry charge to fend it off. They follow the Inca warriors into a dry riverbed outside the city where the Spanish horses start to break their ankles on the huge stones.
Having achieved nothing, the cavalry retreats.
Soon after, the Inca army once again advances on the city.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI: And the Inca army was actually entering the streets of Lima when suddenly they retreated. And the Spanish said, "How stupid! They walk away when they are on our doorstep."
What had happened? I found, in the Archive of the Indies, a document saying that Pizarro's young concubine sent runners with messages to her mother in Huaylas asking for help. She asked for an army, and her mother sent her one.
NARRATOR: Quispe Sisa's mother was a chief in her own right. As soon as she received news that her daughter was surrounded in Lima, she dispatched a large army to relieve the city.
Lima was saved, not by conquistador heroics, but by the arrival of the army sent by the mother of Pizarro's young concubine.
As the Indians from Huaylas descend on Lima, the Inca army sees that its situation is suddenly hopeless. The balance has tipped in favor of the Spanish. The Inca army retreats in disarray.
They are pursued by a few Spaniards, accompanied and protected by large groups of warriors from Huaylas. The fighting of the siege of Lima takes place in small skirmishes around the city.
It was probably in one such skirmish that Mochito and his people met their deaths at the hands of the Spaniards and their Indian allies.
Now, finally, we can tell the story of that last day of their lives.
We don't know Mochito's real name, but from the way he was buried, we know he was a leader and he was young.
MELISSA MURPHY: These clavicles, they aren't fused yet, so that's going to be...put him around...somewhere in the range of 20s, in the early 20s, late teens, maybe 18 to 22.
NARRATOR: Typically, he would have had at least one wife and children. He may have known nothing of the upcoming battle until Inca emissaries came to Puruchuco demanding his support for their fight against the Spanish.
On the morning of the attack, he would have set out from Puruchuco to cover the five miles to the new Spanish settlement at Lima. He and his fellow warriors would have been armed with the traditional Inca weapons: stone clubs, bolas and spears.
They were accompanied by their women, not as warriors, but probably as carriers of food and water for the day's fighting.
MARIA ROSTWOROWSKI: Don't forget that the viruses might have already arrived and decimated the indigenous population. Since they had lost so many warriors, it was probably women who carried the supplies.
NARRATOR: Mochito and his people were part of the Inca army that tried to enter Lima and was forced to retreat by the arrival of the army from Huaylas.
One likely scenario is that as they tried to make it back to Puruchuco, they were hunted down by a small band of Spaniards with their many Indian allies. Mochito's people were clearly outnumbered.
Their deaths came with savage brutality.
MELISSA MURPHY: So this is another individual who has a series of blunt force injuries, peri-mortem injuries, to the left side of the cranium.
NARRATOR: One warrior was killed like no other, shot in the head by a Spanish arquebus, the first recorded gunshot victim in the New World.
TIM PALMBACH: It is very clear that everything that we've evaluated is consistent with, indeed, this being a gunshot wound.
NARRATOR: No one was spared the slaughter, not even the women.
ALBERT HARPER: This is a young woman, and she's been hit very hard.
NARRATOR: As a leader, Mochito would have been attacked with special ferocity.
MELISSA MURPHY: He's missing his face, and there were no facial fragments recovered.
NARRATOR: The bones of his limbs and torso were smashed by club blows and probably the hooves of a Spanish horse.
ALBERT HARPER: The damage extends all the way up to the first rib, which is also then snapped.
NARRATOR: If he was not dead already, the three puncture wounds to his head would certainly have killed him.
ALBERT HARPER: When we have a chance to look at the CAT scans where we can actually peer inside the skull, we can see that the inner layer of the skull is punched out in all three cases.
That much force pushing into the skull would have caused death.
NARRATOR: Perhaps in a final coup de grace, Mochito died as a Spanish lance stabbed him three times in the back of his skull.
Some time later, the people of Puruchuco came to gather their dead. Perhaps a day or more had passed before they dared venture out. Rigor mortis had already set in. This might explain the unusual sprawled postures in their graves.
With war parties still in the area, there was no time for proper death rituals. Mochito and the people who died with him were hastily buried in their clan cemetery.
From their remains, the work of archaeologists, scientists and historians has uncovered a long hidden truth.
EFRAIN TRELLES: The conquest of Peru was a matter of Indians fighting Indians. Indians took Cusco, Indians defended Cusco; Indians attacked Lima, Indians defended Lima.
Now we have solid evidence.
NARRATOR: Why was the massive participation of Indian armies in the Spanish conquest of Peru left out of the chronicles?
JOHN GUILMARTIN: Very straightforward: the Spanish were indebted to their allies; they didn't want to remember their debts.
NARRATOR: To gain their support, the conquistadors promised their Indian allies the independence and influence they had been denied by the Inca. After the conquest, the promises were all conveniently forgotten.
EFRAIN TRELLES: There has been a political interest to erase from the historical landscape all the indigenous elements that helped Pizarro.
NARRATOR: The story of the Spanish alliances with the Andean Indians who fought their battles for them is the great untold story of the conquest. By a strange twist of fate, it is their victims, Mochito and the people who died with him at the siege of Lima, whose bones have borne witness to this long forgotten truth.
On NOVA's Great Inca Rebellion Web site, see in detail how a Spanish conquistador and an Inca warrior were outfitted for battle. Find it on PBS.org.
Educators and other educational institutions can order this or other NOVA programs, for $19.95 plus shipping and handling. Call WGBH Boston Video at 1-800-255-9424.
Wednesday, June 1, 2011
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